3 Wm ./GftEJ jBBi i X(j ONTARIO DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE WOMEN'S INSTITUTES. BULLETIN 146 USES OF Fruits, Vegetables and Honey. PUBLISHED BY THE ONTARIO DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, TORONTO. ONT., NOVEMBER, 1905. Printed by L. K. CAMERON, Printer to the King's Most Excellent Majesty. BULLETIN 146.] [NOVEMBER, 1905. Ontario Department of Agriculture. WOMEN'S INSTITUTES. Uses of Fruits, Vegetables and Honey. USE OF FRUITS. Food Value. While fruits may be said to have a low nutritive value, they are not as a rule estimated at their real value as food. They supply a variety of flavors, mineral substances, some carbo-hydrate and a necessary waste or bulky material for aiding in intestinal move- ment. The flavors of fruits, while they elude chemical analysis, are their most valuable possessions as stimulents to the appetite, and aids to digestion. The mineral substances consist mainly of potash united with various vegetable acids. These acids are converted in the body into the corresponding carbonates and so help to render the blood more alkaline. In some diseases, such as scurvy, this property is turned to good account. All fruits contain pectin or vegetable jelly and cellulose. Pectin is the main constituent of fruit jelly. When to Eat. Fruit is best eaten at breakfast or between meals. A good apple first thing in the morning and the last thing at night is a standard specific for indigestion. After a heavy dinner it is not so valuable in the diet. Exposure of Fruit in Stores. Since the softer fruits decompose so readily they should be eaten as fresh as possible. When fruits are exposed to the air and the dust of the streets, as is so often the case, they are exceedingly apt to decompose and suffer fermentative changes which are very dangerous, and a fruitful source of digestive derange- ments. As may be inferred it is of the first importance that fruits be ripe and in good condition. They must also be delicately handled, as their great value may be readily lost in careless handling. Luscious fruits are so particualrly liable to putrefactive changes, that we must have recourse to some of the various methods of preserving them. Selection and Preparation. The selection of fruit is the first step in obtaining successful results. The flavor of fruit is not developed until it is fully ripe, but the fermentation stage follows so closely upon the perfectly ripe stage, that it is almost safer to use it a little under-ripe than over-ripe. For the making of jelly, the fruit should always be under-ripe. Fruits should, if possible, be freshly picked for preserving ; no imperfect fruit should be used. In the preparation for preserving, system will do much to lighten the work. Begin by having a clean kitchen to work in. Have plenty of hot water in readiness. Have at hand all necessary utensils, towels, spices and sugar. Decide upon the amount of fruit you will cook at one time, then have a bowl that will just hold this quantity. As the Iruit is prepared, drop it into the measuring bowl; when the measure is full, the fruit may be put directly into the preserving kettle. This saves handling and at the same time secures exactness. Hints for Preserving Time. If fruit is very juicy, avoid adding water to it when canning. The less water that has to be used, the finer the flavor of the preserve and the more beautiful its color. Never touch cooking fruit with a spoon or fork which is of any material except silver, wood or granite. A tin spoon may ruin the color and flavor of a whole kettle of fruit. Try a little of your sugar to make a syrup before commencing the canning process. If a bluish-gray scum gathers on top after the boiling, send the sugar back to the grocery-man with an order for a better quality. When the fruit has been put in the jars, it is a good idea to turn them upside down and allow them to stand that way for a few minutes to make sure they are perfectly air-tight, because if they are not, all the previous precautions are in vain. Principles of Canning and Preserving.*. In the preservations of fruits by canning, preserving, etc., the essentials in the processes are sterilization of the fruit, of all utensils used, and the scalding of the fruit to prevent all germs entering, so keeping it sterile. To accomplish this, the spoons, strainers and glass jars should be put on the fire in cold water and allowed to boil for some minutes. The jars must be taken one at a time from the boiling water at the moment they are to be filled with the boiling fruit. The work should be done in a well swept and dusted room, and the clothing of the workers and the towels used should be clean. The truit used should be sound and clean. If over- ripe it is difficult to make it sterile even with considerable boiling. Methods of Preserving. There are many methods of preservng fruit all involving the same principle. The conditions under which the housekeeper must do her work may make one method more convenient than another. There are four common methods : Cookinr the fruit in jars in the oven ; cooking the fruit in jars in boiling water, cooking fruit in a syrup ; and stewing fruit. The first two methods are very useful for juicy fruits, such as berries and cherries that require no water. Prepare the jars and fruit as for ordinary canning. Fill the jars with the raw fruit, using a cup of sugar Note. The word "preserved" is used in a general sense — "to keep." 3 to a quart jar of fruit, sprinkle the sugar through the fruit ; seal the jars and place them either in the oven or in hot water on the top of the stove — the wash boiler is usually used when the fruit is cooked in the last named way. Cook fifteen minutes or till the fruit is soft through. The jars will have to be filled one from the other and resealed. The other fruits may be done by this method :— Make a syrup, pre- pare the fruit the same as for cooking in the preserving kettle. Fill the hot jars with it and pour in enough syrup to fill the jar solidly. Cook as above. It is thought by many that fruit cooked in this way retains its shape, color and flavor better than when cooked in the preserving kettle. The syrups used for preserving vary according to the kind of fruit you wish to preserve, and the richness desired. The following list is one given by Miss Parloa ; — For preserving use f fib sugar to i 5) fruit. For making jam use i fib sugar to i fib fruit. For canning use ^ lb sugar to i 2) fruit. For jelly use i ft> sugar to i pt. fruit. The process of making syrup is very simple. Put the sugar and water into a sauce-pan and stir on the stove until all the sugar is dis- solved. Heat slowly to the boiling point and boil gently without stirr- ing. The length of time that the syrup should boil depends on the richness desired. Put the prepared fruit into the syrup and simmer until tender. In stewing fruit, put the prepared fruit into a sauce pan with enough water to keep it from burning. Cover closely and stew until tender, stirring often, add the sugar and let it boil a moment longer. Jelly Making. Before the principles of sterilization were understood, fruit was pre- served by cooking it with its own weight of sugar. Only jellies are done in this way now. The juice of almost any fruit can be used for jelly makingj those that contain a considerable amount of pectin are the best. Pectin is most abundant in the juices of the hard parts of the fruit, the core and the skin; therefore, these parts should always be used in making jelly. Apples, quinces, crabapples, currants and grapes make the best jellies. Blackberries, raspberries, and peaches are also used. An acid fruit is the most suitable for jelly making, although in some of the acid fruits, the strawberry, for example, the quantity of the jelly making pectin is so small that it is difficult to make jelly with this fruit. If, however, some currant juice be added to the strawberry juice, a pleasant jelly will be the result. Of course, the flavor of the strawberry will be modified. The method af making jelly is the same for all fruits. See that the fruit is clean, free from all leaves and stems, but do not remove the skin. Put the fruit in the preserving kettle with just enough water to prevent burning, heat slowly and stir frequently. Cook the fruit until well broken, put a wire strainer over a large bowl, over this spread a double square of cheese cloth. Turn the crushed fruit and into the cheese-cloth, and let it drain as long as it drips, but do not use pressure. Measure the juice and put it in a clean preserving kettle. For every pint of juice, add a pint of granulated sugar, stir until the sugar is dissolved, then place over the fire, watch closely, and when it boils up draw it back and skim ; put over the fire again, and boil and skim once more; boil and skim a third time, then pour into hot glasses taken from the pan of water on the stove. If the juice be rich in pectin — not watery — even as little as half the quantity of sugar will be sufficient As soon as the jelly is set, i.e., thickens slightly when dropped on a cold plate, cover by the following method : — Have discs of thick white paper the size of the top of the glass, dip a disc of paper in the spirits and put it on the jelly. If the glasses have covers put them on, if not, cut discs of paper half an inch in diameter larger than the top of the glass. Beat together the white of an egg and a teaspoonful of cold water. Wet the paper covers with this mixture and put over the glass, pressing down the sides well to make them to stick to the glass. Parrafin is sometimes used to cover jeiiy to protect it from moulds. About one-eighth of an inch in thickness is sufficient. A wooden spoon is best to use in preserving. It is light ; does not melt as metal ones often times do ; does not impart flavors ; the handle never gets hot; and last, but perhaps not least, it makes no jarring noise to affect nerves which may be otherwise strained. Apple Dishes. Apple Float. Make the old fashioned apple sauce by stewing the apples until soft, sweeten and beat, then add the beaten whites of eggs, and pile on nice white dish. This can be served with a soft custard made from'the yokeSj of the eggs. Apple Snow. Pare and core six good sized apples and steam them in two tablespoonsful water with a little lemon peel until quite soft. Add one-fourth pound finely sifted sugar, let cool, and whip in whites of two fresh eggs. Beat well, without stopping, to a stiff snow, and serve heaped up in custard glasses with a star of red currant jelly on top. Apple Icing. White of i egg; f cup granulated sugar; i apple (grated). Beat all together for half an hour ; flavor with almond. Baked Apples. To bake in their skins, wash and wipe, and place in earthenware or graniteware baking dishes, as tin or iron injures the flavor of the fruit. They should be baked until they form a frothy, pulpy mass, and if there is any danger of the juice burning on the bak- ing dish, add a little water. Eaten with cream they form a delicious dessert. Or they can be peeled and cored and the centres filled with spiced sugar and a small piece of butter. Pour a little water in the baking pan, and a rich juice is formed, which can be used for basting them. Baked Apple Sauce. Pare, quarter and core large apples and pack in an earthen jar with brown sugar, cover closely and bake slowly in a moderate oven until the contents have been shrunken to about half their original bulk and are rich, red and luscious. Apple Compote. Core and peel as many apples as are wanted and cook slowly in a syrup made by boiling one cup of sugar to one cup of water. When done lift to a dish and fill the spaces where the cores were with apple jelly and sprinkle with granulated sugar. Pour the syrup around them. Nice red apples can be quartered and cored and the skins left on them and cooked slowly in the same way, turning them in order that both sides may be cooked alike. They make a nice dish for breakfast or tea. Apple Meringue. Peel, core and slice ten or twelve good sized apples. Cook them with three ounces of sugar, 2 ounces of butter, and the grated rind of a lemon. Cook as dry as possible, then beat them till smooth and form in a loaf shape. Cover with a meringue made of the whites of two eggs beaten till stiff, with two tablespoons of sugar, added to the egg just before using. Bake in a moderate oven till a nice golden brown. Serve with a boiled custard sauce. Apple Farci with Whipped Cream. Core but do not peel six nice large apples. Steam until tender. Boil half a cup of sugar with one cup of water for five minutes. Add half a cup each of cherries and shredded pine apple. Place the steamed apples upon slices of stale cake, putting the boiled mixture into the centres. Pour whipped cream over the apples ; sprinkle with chopped nuts. New England Apple Sauce. Pare, core and quarter nice tart apples. Put them in an earthen dish, sweeten and spice to taste. Cover with water ; lay a cover on the dish and bake the apples till tender. Fried Apples. Wash and wipe large tart apples. Slice in thick rounds. Have a skillet with hot butter in if, put the apples in; sweeten; cover and cook slowly until brown. Watch carefully or they will burn. Apple Custard Pie. 2 well-beaten eggs; 1 cup grated apple; 1 pint sweet milk ; 2 large spoons sugar salt and flavor. Plain Marleboro Pie. Into 2 cups of sifted apple sauce, stir while hot 2 tablespoons of butter. Beat the yolks of 2 eggs ; add 1 cup sugar ; \ of the grated rind, and all the juice of 1 lemon. Mix this with the apple. Cover plate with a rich crust ; turn in the mixture and bake about half an hour in a moderate oven. Cover with meringue or whipped cream, or put a top crust on. Steamed Apple Pudding. Two cups of flour ; four teaspoons baking- powder ; one half teaspoon of salt ; two tablespoons butter ; three quarters of a cup of milk ; four apples cut in eighths. Mix and sift dry ingredients ; work in butter with tips of fingers, add milk gradually, mixing with knife; toss on floured board, roll out, place apples on middle of dough and sprinkle with sugar, bring dough around apples and carefuly lift into buttered mould, cover closely and steam one hour and twenty minutes. Apple Tapioca. Three quarters of a cup of tapioca ; seven sour apples ; one half teaspoonful of salt ; cold water ; one half cup of sugar ; two and one half cups of boiling water. Soak tapioca one hour in cold water to cover, add boiling water and salt; cook in double boiler until transparent, pare and slice apples, place in a buttered pudding dish, sprinkle sugar over apples, and pour over tapioca, and bake in moderate oven until apples are soft. Apple Batter Pudding. One cup flour ; one egg ; one half cup milk ; one half cup of sugar ; two tablespoons butter ; one teaspoon baking powder; one quarter teaspoon vanilla; six sour apples. Cream butter and sugar, sift flour and baking powder together, beat egg and milk together, add the milk and egg alternately with the flour to the creamed butter and sugar, add flavoring. Pare and slice apples, place in a buttered baking dish and pour over bater. Bake fifteen to twenty minutes. Apple Jam. Core and pare the apples ; chop them well, allow equal quantity in weight of apples and sugar; make a syrup of sugar by add- ing a little water, boiling and skimming well, then throw in a little grated lemon peel and a little white ginger. Boil until the fruit looks clear. Pickled Apples. Apple pickles are delicious. Pare and. halve the apples, removing the cores carefully, to keep them in good shape, steam till soft. Put spiced vinegar over them. Preserved Apples. Pare and core ripe sour apples. Strew the bottoms of two Mason jars with granulated sugar an eighth of an inch thick; cover with a layer of thinly-sliced, very ripe apples, sprinkle freely with sugar, and alternate apples and sugar until the cans are full : Set the jars up to the neck placing underneath a plate or board in water as hot as can be borne without danger of cracking the jars, and increase the heat until the sugar is dissolved half an hour. Take from the fire, fill one can from the other and seal closely as in canning. Old Fashioned Boston Apple Pudding. Peel a dozen and a half good tart apples. Core, cut small, and put in a stew pan. Add a table- spoonful of water for each apple; £ teaspoon cinnamon; 2 cloves, and the grated rind of half a lemon. Stew over a slow fire until quite soft. Sweeten to taste and rub through a coarse sieve. Add the yolks of 4 eggs and the white of i ; J pound of good butter ; ^ a nutmeg, and tiK rest of the lemon rind grated, also the juice of the lemon. Beat all well together. Line the inside of a deep pie dish with puff caste, put in the pudding and bake forty minutes. Pickling. A recipe which can be adapted for pickling all sorts of fall fruits calls for four pounds of light brown sugar to seven pounds of fruit, one pint vinegar and one ounce whole cinnamon, half an ounce of cloves and all- spice tied in a tiny muslin bag. Wash the fruit thoroughly, dry, and over same put the sugar, allowing it to stand twenty-four hours, at the end of this time the sugar will be reduced to a syrup. Drain it off the fruit ; add to the vinegar and spices and let it boil for half an hour ; put in the fruit and simmer gently till you cari pierce the fruit with a straw; lift the fruit out carefully into a jar and allow the syrup to cook until quite thick, then pour over the fruit and put away covered tightly. Plums. Plums are especially well adapted for making the commoner varieties of jellies and jams. The larger and more expensive varieties may be canned or preserved according to general directions given above. Cold Water Process for Canning. Carefully select fruit, wash, then fill in thoroughly sterilized jars and pack firmly. Fill jars with cold water, screw lids on loosely, stand jars in boiler well protected at the bottom either by a board or several thicknesses of cloth, fill the boiler with water to within one-half inch of top of jars. Heat gently to boiling point, boil until tender. Allow jars to cool slightly, then remove and fill jars with boiling water and seal tight. When required for use add sugar several hours before serving. The chief virtue of this method is that the natural fresh flavor of the fruit is retained. Pickled Plums. 4 quarts plums ; 4 pounds sugar ; 1 pint vinegar ; \ tablespoon cloves ; 1 tablespoon cinnamon. Cook for half an hour. Serve with meats. Pears. The general directions given for canning and preserving are applic- able for pears. Pears should not be long exposed after the skins have been removed, as the air has the effect of discoloring. Canned Pears. Prepare as in general directions and either leave the pears whole or cut in halves or quarters. It is always well to use some flavoring such as ginger root or lemon rind. Sweet Pickled Pears. Half a peck of pears, one pint of vinegar, two pounds of brown sugar, one ounce stick cinnamon, cloves. Boil sugar, vinegar and cinnamon twenty minutes. If small pears are used, 8 pickle whole ; if large, quarter. Stick each pear with four cloves. Put into syrup and cook until soft. Pears have less cellulose and less acid than apples, and are best eaten raw. Baked Pears. Peel some large, sound pears, arrange them in a porcelain baking dish, with the stalk end upward. Pour a little water over them, and enough good molasses to sweeten thoroughly. Bake in a slow oven for several hours. They gain in flavor if basted with the molasses occasionally. Peaches. In preparing varieties for canning, preserving or pickling, first put in boiling water, allowing them to stand just long enough to loosen the skin. Remove skins and cook fruit at once in order to avoid discolor- ation. Peaches may be pickled in the same way as pears. Peach Tapioca, i cup tapioca, soak one hour in cold water and drain. Add enough water to the syrup poured from a can of peaches to make in all three cups ; add the soaked tapioca, and J cup sugar and a little salt to this liquid. Cook till thoroughly clear, line a mould with the peaches, dust with sugar, and fill with the tapioca ; serve with whipped cream. Quinces. Preserved Quinces. Pare, core and quarter quinces, then weigh them. Put parings, cores and seeds into preserving kettle, cover with water, and boil slowly twenty minutes, then strain them, put the water back and put in quinoes a few at a time and simmer gently till tender; lay them on a dish. When all are done, add sugar and a little warm water. Let them boil for a few minutes until clear then put in all the quinces and boil without stirring until they become a clear garnet. Have ready two lemons sliced thin and seeds taken out. Put in a few minutes before taking off the fire. Quince Jelly. Cut quinoes into quarters, without paring or coring, cover with water and cook until soft; strain, and proceed according to general rules for making jelly. Grapes. Canned Grapes. Pulp the grapes ; boil the pulp five minutes ; strain to take out seeds ; put skins and pulp together ; put pound for pound of sugar; boil half an hour, then add a little nice apple sauce that has been strained and cook for ten minutes. Grape Catsup. Six quarts of grapes off the stems ; pulp, then boil the pulp until seeds come out ; strain through colander. Take a ten pound basket of apples and make into *sauce. Use one quart of water ;. one quart of vinegar ; three pounds of sugar ; all kinds of spices. Boil. 9 Spiced Grapes. Pulp one peck of grapes; boil for five minutes; strain to take out seeds ; put the skins and pulp together and add three pounds of sugar ; one pint of vinegar ; one teaspoon cloves ; one teaspoon cinnamon ; one teaspoon allspice. Cook until thick. Grape Relish. (To be used with fowl.) Take ten pounds of under ripe grapes, boil for five minutes, strain, add one pound of sugar- to one pound of fruit juice, also one teaspoon each of cinnamon, cloves and all- spice. Boil five minutes ; strain into moulds. Unfermented Grape Juice. Stem and wash grapes, place in pre- serving kettle, add water to about one inch from top of grapes (the same as in making jelly), boil until all are broken, strain through a jelly bag, add one quart of sugar to two quarts juice and boil ten minutes ; bottle and seal. Some persons prefer to add the sugar at the time of using the wine. Strawberries. The popular estimation of the strawberry is reflected in the saying, "Doubtless God could have made a better berry than the strawberry, but he never did. " Ih canning strawberries the chief difficulty lies in preserving the form of the fruit. With strawberries, and all watery fruits, it is well to prepare the fruit, and sprinkle over it the sugar to be used ; allow it to stand over night; pour the juice into a preserving kettle; bring to a boil, skim and then add the fruit, cooking only for a few minutes after it comes to the boil. Bottle carefuly and keep in a cool, dry place. Canned in this way the fruit retains both form and color. Currants. Red currants are most valued for jelly making. Spiced currants are also a great relish, and a desirable tart fruit throughout the year when preserved in water (cold water process.) Black Currant Preserve. Cook until tender in water or a very light syrup sufficient to nicely cover the fruit. Strain through a colander. Add sugar to liquid equal in volume to both liquid and currants, taking into account the sugar already added ; if currants were cooked in syrup. When liquid and sugar are jellied add currants and bring to boiling points, then fill into sealer. Rolly-Polly Pudding. Make a nice, short, biscuit crust, with 2 cups of flour, 3 teaspoons baking powder, 2 tablespoons lard, 2 table- spoons butter, salt, add milk enough to make a light dough. Roll out to half an inch in thickness, spread with black currant jam, roll up in floured cloth and boil for one hour. Rhubarb. Cut the rhubarb when it is young and tender. Wash it thoroughly ; cut into pieces about half an inch in length. Pack in sterilized jars. 10 Fill the jars to overflowing with cold water, and let them stand ten min- utes. Drain off the water and fill again to overflowing with fresh cold water. Seal with sterilized covers. When required for use treat the same as fresh rhubarb. Green gooseberries may be preserved in the same way. Rhubarb and Orange Compote. i pint bottle rhubarb, 3 oranges, 1 cup sugar. Peel the oranges, removing as much as possible of the white pith ; divide into sections ; put all the ingredients together into a preserving kettle and simmer gently for about an hour. Rhubarb. 1 pint of "cold water" rhubarb; put into double boiler with i a cup of sugar; small grating of lemon rind; small piece of ginger. When quite cooked set aside to cool ; remove ginger. Soak ^ ounce of gelatine in £ cup of cold water; add, when softened, I cup hot water to dissolve; add to rhubarb with 1 tablespoonful of lemon juice. Pour into a mould when nicely set. Serve with whipped cream. Prunes. Pruns can be cooked up so that they will be rich and deliciously flavored. When buying prunes see that they are large and solid and have the surface unbroken. Take one in your hand, pull and flatten it out. If it leaves the skin unbroken and shiny you may feel sure that you have the proper article. After washing them let them stand in cold water over night. In cooking place them in the saucepan with plenty of cold water to cover. When they come to a boil, set the saucepan where it willl keep on an even but steady slow boil. An hour and a half is none too long for prunes to cook. By that time the syrup is reduced to a thick consistency, which, when cold, will almost jelly. As soon as the prunes are put on the fire the lemon goes in with it. Allow one lemon to three quarters of a pound of prunes. Shave off the yellow rind as thin and small as possible, then peel off the thick, white portion, discard- ing the inner lining and bitter part of the skin. Slice the lemon and add it all to the prunes. When they have boiled about half an hour add the sugar. As you stir and watch them occasionally, taste and see if they have a lemony flavor. Sometimes the right amount of sugar has not been added to draw out that flavor. Allow about a cup of sugar. When done the syrup should just cover the prunes. By following the given recipe carefully it is as possible to have your stewed prunes rich and delicious as a more choice preserve. In the following recipes the prunes are first stewed in this way before being made into the jellies, and so on. By pitting and mincing the prunes to a jam they make a rich pie filling. Have a meringue top or pie crust. 11 Prune Pudding. Stew half a pound of prunes till quite soft. Press through a coarse sieve, sweeten to taste, add the well-beaten whites of three eggs, i tablespoon of flour, i teaspoonful of butter. Pour into a pudding dish and bake in a moderate oven for twenty minutes. Table showing uses for which the commoner varieties of fruit are best suited. Apples. al — Excellent. Variety. Season for Use. Sauce. Jelly. Baking. Pies, etc. Dessert. Alexander Astrachan Baldwin Bellefleur Sept.— Oct. August Jan. — Mar. Jan. — Mar. Mar. — May Nov. — Feb. Aug — Sept. July. — Aug. Sept. — Dec. Oct.— Dec. Aug. — Sept. Jan. — Mar. Dec— Feb. Nov. — Jan. Jan. — Mar. Jan. — May Oct.— Dec. Jan. — Mar. Dec. — Feb. Dec. — April Sept.— Nov. Nov — Jan. a al 1) a b a to b al a al al al al al al b a al a al b b a a a b a b a a a al al al al al a b a al b a b a b a Ben Davis Blenheim b a a Duchess b Earlv Harvest al Fameuse a a a al al al al al Fall Pippin a Gravenstein al Greeninsr a al Mcintosh al Ontario a. Russett a Ribston Pippin b a b al b a Sr>v al Seek-No-Further a a Wealthy Wagener a a b a a a — Good. b— Fair. Pears. Variety. Season for Use. Can- ning. Sauce. Pick- les. Pies. Des- sert. Giffard Early Summer Late Summer. Autumn September Sept.— Oct, Nov. — Jan. Early Winter. Nov. — Dec. a al al a a a al Bartlett a a al Flemish Beauty al Bosc . . al Duchess . . al a al Louise . al Lawrence al Anjou a al b a b a a al Kieffer 12 Peaches. Variety. Alexander Yellow St. John Early Crawford Late Crawford. Champion Elberta Longhurst Smock Season for Use. July 25 Aug. 15 Aug. 24 Sept. 24 Sept. 3 Sept. 12 Sept. 12 Oct. l-15th. Can- ning. al al al al al al al Pick- les. al al al al b al al Pies- al al al al a al al Des- sert. b al al a? al b b b Plums. Variety. Season of Use. Cann- ing. Sauce. Pies. Dessert. Drying. Eed June Abundance Bradshaw €oe Green Gage Aug. 1-15 Aug. 10-20 Aug. 15-30 Early Sept Aug. 15-30 Sept. and Oct Sept. 15-30 Sept. 15-30 End of Aug Sept a a a a a 1 b a a a a 1 a a a a al b a a a a 1 a a a a 1 b b b a a 1 a 1 al al a a b b b a 1 a German Cream Purple Egg a 1 b Quackenbos Washington. . .... Reine Claude b End of Aug Satsuma Specially good for pickles. Specially cri\nr\ fnr ipllv The following are some of the most desirable varieties of Grapes : Brighton, Campbell, Concord, Delaware, Lindley, Mover, Moore, Niagara, Salem, Vergennes, Worden. VEGETABLES. Green vegetables are less nutritious than roots, and are valued chiefly for their dietetic value and for their flavor. They are largely composed of water and cellulose, which makes them useful as laxatives. They contain as a rule about 90 per cent, of water, and only i£ to 3 per cent, of muscle-building materials. But their value in the diet cannot be 13 over estimated. Taken individualy we find that most of them have a medicinal value, which if fully appreciated by the public would do much to decrease the alarming consumption of patent medicines which at present prevails amongst our people. Asparagus is not a delicacy of recent date, but was highly valued by the Romans as long ago as 425 B.C. The green asparagus is con- sidered the best variety, and may be grown to perfection among the vines in our southern counties. It is only slightly nutritive, but contains a crystaline nitrogenous substance called asparagin, which produces marked physiological effects. Cabbage contains sulphur, and is therefore flatulent in effect. Boil- ing dissipates a good deal of the sulphur compounds and softens the cellulose, but cabbage is never so digestible as when young, and eaten raw, with vinegar, as with salads. Cauliflower is an inflorescence of a species of cabbage. It is the most delicate and digestible of all the cabbage products. Kale, another cabbage plant, has rather an acrid flavor, but is delicate and easily digested. Brussels Sprouts are little clusters of leaves resembling cabbages formed in the axils of the main leaves, and are very good, being deli- cate in flavor and easily digested. Celery, either roots or blanched stems, are eaten raw, alone or in salad, or used to flavor soups, or boiled with cream sauce. The blanched stalks contain an aromatic oil, sugar, mucilage, starch, and also manose sugar, which is also found in honey, and is strong stimulants to the execretory organs. The daily use of celery as a salad is said to remove nervousness and palpitation of the heart. Onions have also the same effect and may be used when celery is out of season. It is also used in rheumatic cases. This painful ailment will yield to the continual use of celery, prepared in the following manner. Cut the celery into pieces and boil in water until soft. This "stock" of water should be drunk by the patient. Put whole milk and a little flour and a grating of nutmeg into a sauce pan with the boiled celery ; bring to the boil, and serve hot with pieces of toast. Lettuce is cooling and easily digested. It is a blood purifier and gently laxative in its action. The milky juice is somewhat narcotic and is sometimes used as a sedative. Onions. All varieties are nutritious, and valuable as blood purifiers; also stimulate digestion, and, like celery, are useful for nervousness. "Personal equation" figures largely in the use of onions, as some per- sons cannot tolerate them at all, while others eat them with apparent relish. Gourds. In this group of vegetables we have pumpkins, vegetable marrow, squash and egg plant, — all of them being easily digested, but 14 of low nutrient value. They have a good dietetic value, as the quantity of water they contain is so large. Cucumbers. Are chiefly of value for the water they contain. Melons are also valuable for the amount of water they contain, being- more of a drink than a food. Tomato, itself the "prince of salads," is never better than when eaten fresh and raw. We have no other vegetable that is capable of being cooked and served in so many ways. The tomato owes its pleasant sour taste to oxalic acid, and on that account, like rhubarb, is generally forbidden to those with gouty tendencies. Since oxalic acid forms in- soluble salts with lime and magnesia, excessive use of rhubarb or tomatoes tends to thin the blood, and produce outbreaks on the skin. Pickles. Chili Sauce. 18 large, ripe tomatoes, 6 onions, 6 small red peppers, J cup sugar, 2 cups vinegar, salt to taste. Peel the onions and tomatoes, remove the seeds and core from the peppers. Chop all very fine, add the sugar and salt, boil slowly until the sauce becomes quite thick; then put away in well sterilized bottles. Spiced Tomatoes (Suitable for Game.) Peel and slice the tomatoes and put them in the preserving kettle with sugar, (half as much sugar as fruit, by weight.) A quart of vine- gar and x ounce each of ground mace, cloves and cinnamon. Mix and cook slowly for three hours. Put in glass jars and seal. Roots and Tubers. Potatoes. The value of the potato as food lies in its starch. It is very poor in nitrogenous material, and cannot be used alone in support life. Its deficiencies material, and cannot be used alone to support life. Its deficiencies in this respect are supplied by the more concentrated foods, rich in proteids and fats, with which it is usually served. Potato juice is acid containing many substances that tend to purify the blood, but the wafer in which potatoes have been boiled is not wholesome. That in which new potatoes have been boiled is especially so. Severe diarrhoea has been caused by the indiscriminate use of potatoes con- taining unformed starch an immature cellulose. Potatoes may be stored in pits, or in a cool, dark, well-ventilated cellar ; light and frost both being injurious to potatoes. The addition of a pound of lime to each barrel of potatoes absorbs any unpleasant earthy odor. Exposure to light makes potatoes green, bitter and unwholesome. Potatoes taken too early from the ground are apt to heat and sprout when stored. 15 Jerusalem Artichokes. The tuber of a species of sun-flower, This is nutritious, easily digested ; makes good soup. Should be stored in boxes of sand as it dries out quickly. Carrots are useful as blood purifiers ; wholesome, but not very easily digested. Parsnips are more nutritious than carrots, and are best after a touch of frost. Turnips are inferior in nurtitrive properties. Radishes have a stimulating effect upon the excretory organs and act as demulcent ; are often given to remove excess of mucus from stomach and bladder. Asparagus Boiled, i large asparagus. Immerse in boiling salted water and cook slowly for about twenty minutes, — drain, — and serve with the following sauce. . Cook together two tablespoons of butter and the same quantity of flour without browning, add slowly stirring constantly, | cup of the stock or water in which the asparagus was boiled and \ cup milk. Season to taste and pour over asparagus. Beets with the same Sauce. Boil till tender six small beets, drain and cover with cold water. Mix a cup sugar, 4 tablespoons corn starch, | cup vinegar, | cup boiling water. Bring all to the boil and pour over beets. Serve either hot or cold. Carrots. Boil twelve small carrots, drain and cut in slices, heat gently in melted butter, mix together 1 cup white sauce and 1 cup of green peas and pour over the carrots, — serve very hot. Horseradish Sauce. 3 tablespoons grated horseradish, 1 table- spoon vinegar, |- tablespoon salt, dust of cayenne pepper, mix thorough- ly and when ready to serve add \ cup cream, whipped very stiff. To be served with roast beef. Bean Salad. 2 cups cold beans mixed with two tablespoons tomato catsup and covered with 1 tablespoon capers, surround by one cup celery cut in nice pieces. Serve with cettie dressing. Cabbage Salad. 2 cups of cabbage chopped, 1 cup celery, 1 tea- spoon cloves or onions grated, 2 drops tobasco sauce 01 1 tablespoon tomato catsup. Mayonnaise dressing. Salad Dressing. 2 tablespoons butter creamed. Add one teaspoon- ful each of salt and sugar, \ teaspoonful each of mustard and salt. Put into a double boiler. 2 yolks beaten slightly, add 4 tablespoons vinegar and butter mixture — cook till it thickens — and when cold add f cup whipped cream. Mayonnaise Dressing. Put the yolk of one egg into a very cold basin, add ^ teaspoon salt and the same quantity of mustard, stir with a silver spoon till the consistency of soft butter, then add drop by drop 1 cup cold olive oil — stirring constantly — when this thickens add 2 table- spoons vinegar, and 1 tablespoon lemon juice, a few drops at a time. 16 HONEY. One of Nature's Best Foods. It is only within the last few cen- turies that sugar has become known, and only within the last generation that refined sugars have become so low in price that they may be com- monly used in the poorest families. Formerly honey was the principal sweet, and it was highly valued three thousand years before the first sugar-refinery was built. It would add greatly to the health of the present generation if honey could be at least partially restored to its former place as a common article of diet. The almost universal craving for sweets of some kind shows a real need of the system in that direction ; but the excessive use of sugar brings in its train a long list of ills. When cane sugar is taken into the stomach, it can not be assimilated until first changed by digestion into grape sugar. Only too often the overtaxed stomach fails to pro- perly perform this digestion, then comes sour stomach and various dys- peptic phases. Now, in the wonderful laboratory of the hive there is found a sweet that needs no further digestion having been prepared fully by those wonderful chemists, the bees, for prompt assimilation without taxing stomach or kidneys. As Prof. Cook says: "There can be no doubt but that in eating honey our digestive machinery is saved work that it would have to perform if we ate cane sugar ; and in case it is overworked and feeble, this may be just the respite that will save from breakdown." A. I. Root says: "Many people who can not eat sugar without having unpleasant symptons follow will find by careful test that they can eat good well-rjpened honey without any difficulty at all." Not only is honey the most wholesome of all sweets, but it is the most delicious, and its cost so moderate that it may well find a place on the tables of 1?he common people every day in the week. Indeed, in many cases it may be a matter of real economy to lessen the butter bill by letting honey in part take its place. One pound of honey will go as far as a pound of butter ; and if both articles be of the best quality the honey will cost the less of the two. Give Children Honey. When children are allowed a liberal supply of honey it will largely do away with the inordinate longing for candy and other sweets. Ask the average child whether he will have honey alone on his bread, or butter alone, and almost invariably he will answer, "Honey." Yet seldom are the needs or the taste of the child properly consulted. The old man craves fat meat ; the child loathes it. He wants sweet, not fat. He delights to eat honey ; it is a wholesome food for him, and is not expensive. Why should he not have it? Honey may be used to sweeten hot drinks, as coffee and tea. Ger- man honey-tea — A cup of hot water with one or two tablespoonfuls of extracted honey — is a pleasing and wholesome drink. 17 Care of Honey. The average housekeeper will put honey in the cellar for safe keep- ing- — about the worst place possible. Honey readily attracts moisture, and in the cellar extracted honey will become thin, and in time may sour; and with comb honey the case is still worse, for the appearance as well as the quality is changed. Instead of keeping honey in a place moist and cool, keep it dry and warm, even hot. It will not hurt to be in a temperature of even ioo°'. Where salt will keep dry is a good place for honey. Few places are better than the kitchen cupboard. Up in a hot garret next the roof is a good place, and if it has had enough hot days there through the summer it will stand the freezing of winter; lor under ordinary circumstances freezing cracks the combs, and hastens granulation or candying. Candied Honey. If honey be kept for any length of time, espec- ially during cold weather, it has a tendency to change from its original beautiful liquid transparency to a white semi-solid granular condition ; and when it is thus changed, bee-keepers call it "granulated" or "can- died." Sometimes it is candied so solid that when in a barrel the head has to be taken off, and the honey removed by the spadeful. But its candied condition is not to be taken as an evidence against its genuine- ness or purity, but rather to the contrary, for the adulterated honeys are less liable to candy than those that are pure. Some prefer honey in the candied state ; but the majority prefer liquid. It is an easy matter to restore it to its former liquid condition. Simply keep it in hot water long enough, but not too hot. If heated above i6o p there is danger of spoiling the color and ruining the flavor. Re- member that honey contains the most delicate of all flavors — that of the flowers from which it is taken. A good way is to set the vessel con- taining the honey inside another vessel containing hot water, not allow- ing the bottom of the one to rest directly on the bottom of the other, but putting a bit of shingle or something of the kind between. Let it stand on the stove, but do not let the water boil. It may take half a day or longer to melt the honey. If the honey is set directly on the reser- voir of a cook-stove it will be all right in a few days. In time it will granulate. Various Uses of Honey. Aside from its use in an unchanged state as a direct accompaniment of bread or biscuit, honey is used by bakers in manufacturing some of their choicest wares. An advantage in using honey for anything in the line of cake is its keeping qualities. Even if the cake should become dry, close it up in a bread-can for a time and its freshness will return. Honey is used in medicines, and is the base of many of the cough cures and salves. For candy, honey is far more wholesome than cane sugar. 2 — 146. 18 Very many of the so-called honey cooking recipes are valueless, for when the ingredients are put together and made into a cake the result i. c . simply vile. The recipes given below have been tested, and every one is guaranteed to be good. The honey-jumble recipe, for instance, is especially good, as is the honey-cake recipe by Maria Fraser. Honey Cooking Recipes. Honey-gems. 2 qts. flour, 3 tablespoonfuls melted lard, £ pint honey, £ pt. molasses, 4 heaping tablespoonfuls brown sugar, 1^ level tablespoonfuls soda, 1 level teaspoonful salt, ^ pint water, \ teaspoonful extract vanilla. Honey-jumbles. 2 quarts flour, 3 tablespoonfuls melted lard, 1 pt. honey, J pt. molasses, 1^ level tablespoonfuls soda, 1 level teaspoonful salt, £ pint water, \ teaspoonful vanilla. These jumbles and the gems immediately preceding are from re- cipes used by bakeries and confectioners on a large scale, one firm in Wisconsin alone using ten tons of honey annually in their manufacture. Honey-cake or Cookies without sugar or molasses. Two cups honey; one cup butter; four eggs (mix well); one cup buttermilk (mix); one good quart flour; one level teaspoonful soda or saleratus. If it is too thin, stir in a little more flour. If too thin it will fall. It does not want to be as thin as sugar-cake. I use very thick honey. Be sure to use the same cup for measure. Be sure to mix the honey, eggs and butter well together. You can make it richer if you like by using clabbered cream instead of buttermilk. Bake in a rather slow oven, as it burns very easily. To make the cookies, use a little more flour, so that they will roll out well without sticking to the board. Any kind of flavoring will do. I use ground orange-peel mixed soft. It makes a very nice ginger-bread. Maria Fraser. Aikin's Honey-cookies. i teacupful extracted honey, 1 pint sour cream, scant teaspoonful soda, flavoring if desired, flour to make a soft dough. Soft Honey-cake, i cup butter, 2 cups honey, 2 eggs, 1 cup sour milk, 2 teaspoonfuls soda, 1 teaspoonful ginger, 1 teaspoonful cinna- mon, 4 cups flour. — Chalon Fowls. Ginger Honey-cake, i cup honey, £ cup butter, or drippings, 1 tablespoonful boiled cider, in half a cup of hot water (or £ cup sour milk will do instead). Warm these ingredients together, and then add 1 tablespoonful" ginger and 1 teaspoonful soda sifted in with flour enough to make a soft batter. Bake in a flat pan. — Chalon Fowls. Fowls' Honey Fruit-cake. \ cup butter, Z cup honey, $ cup apple jelly or boiled cider, 2 eggs well beaten, 1 teaspoonful soda, 1 teaspoon- 19 ful each of cinnamon, cloves and nutmeg-, i teacupful each of raisins and dried currants. Warm the butter, honey, and apple jelly slightly, add the beaten eggs, then the soda dissolved in a little warm water ; add spices and flour enough to make a stiff batter, then stir in the fruit and bake in a slow oven. Keep in a covered jar several weeks before using. Fowls' Honey Layer=cake. § cup butter, i cup honey, 3 eggs beaten, £ cup milk. Cream the honey and butter together, then add the eggs and milk. Then add 2 cups flour containing 1^ teaspoonfuls baking powder previously stirred in. Then stir in flour to make a stiff batter. Bake in jelly-tins. When the cakes are cold, take finely flavor- ed candied honey, and after creaming it spread between layers. Fowls' Honey-cookies. 3 teaspoonfuls soda dissolved in 2 cups warm honey, 1 cup shortening containing salt, 2 teaspoonfuls ginger, 1 cup hot water, flour sufficient to roll. Honey Nut-cakes. 8 cups sugar, 2 cups honey, 4 cups milk or water, 1 lb. almonds, 1 lb. English walnuts, 3 cents' worth each of can- died lemon and orange peel, 5 cents' worth citron (the last three cut fine), 2 large tablespoonfuls soda, 2. teaspoonfuls cinnamon, 2 teaspoon- fuls ground cloves. Put the milk, sugar, and honey on the stove, to boil 15 minutes; skim off the scum, and take from the stove. ' Put in the nuts, spices, and candied fruit. Stir in as much flour as can be done with a spoon. Set away to cool, then mix in the soda (don't make the dough too stitt). Cover up and let stand over night, then work in flour enough to make a stiff dough. Bake when you get ready. It is well to let it stand a few days, as it will not stick so badly. Roll out a little thicker than a common cooky, cut in any shape you like. This recipe originated in Germany, is old and tried, and the cake will keep a year or more. — Mrs. E. Smith. Honey-drop Cakes, i cup honey ; \ cup sugar ; \ cup butter or lard ; \ cup sour milk ; 1 egg ; \ tablespoonful soda ; 4 cups sifted flour. Honey Shortcake. 3 cups flour, 2 teaspoonfuls baking-powder, 1 teaspoonful salt, •§■ cup shortening, i| cups sweet milk. Roll quick- ly, and bake in a hot oven. When done, split the cake and spread the lower half thinly with butter, and the upper half with £ pound of the best flavored honey. (Candied honey is preferred. If too hard to spread well it should be slightly warmed or creamed with a knife). Let it stand a few minutes, and the honey will melt gradually, and the flavor will permeate all through the cake. To be eaten with milk. Honey Tea-cake, i cup honey, \ cup sour cream, 2 eggs, \ cup butter, 2 cups flour, scant \ teaspoonful soda, 1 tablespoonful cream of tartar. Bake 30 minutes in a moderate oven. — Miss. M. Chandler. Honey Ginger-snaps, i pint honey, f lb. butter, 2 teaspoonfuls ginger. Boil together a few minutes, and when nearly cold put in flour until it is stiff. Roll out thin, and bake quickly. 20 Honey Fruit-Cake. i| cups honey, § cup butter, | cup sweet milk, 2 eggs well beaten, 3 cups flour, 2 teaspoonfuls baking-powder, 2 cups raisins,, 1 teaspoonful each of cloves and cinnamon. Honey Popcorn Balls. Take 1 pint extracted honey ; put it into an iron frying-pan, and boil until very thick; then stir in freshly popped corn, and when cool mold into balls. These will specially delight the children. Honey Caramels. i cup extracted honey of best flavor, 1 cup granulated sugar, 3 tablespoonfuls sweet cream or milk. Boil to "soft crack," or until it hardens when dropped into cold water, but not too brittle — just so it will form into a soft ball when taken in the fingers. Pour into a greased dish, stirring in a teaspoonful extract of vanilla just before taking off. Let it be \ or J inch deep in the dish; and as it cools cut in squares and wrap each square in parafhne paper, such as grocers wrap butter in. To make chocolate caramels, add to the fore- going 1 tablespoonful melted chocolate, just before taking off the stove, stirring it in well. For chocolate caramels it is not so important that the honey be of best quality. — C. C. Miller. Honey Apple-butter. One gallon good cooking apples ; 1 quart honey ; 1 quart honey vinegar ; 1 heaping teaspoonful ground cinnamon. Cook several hours, stirring often to prevent burning. If the vinegar is very strong, use part water. Mrs. R. C. Aikin. Honey and Tar Cough-cure. Put 1 tablespoonful liquid tar into a shallow tin dish and place it in boiling water until the tar is hot. To this add a pint of extracted honey and stir well for half an hour, adding to it a level teaspoonful pulverized borax. Keep well corked in a bottle. Dose, teaspoonful every one, two, or three hours, according to severity of cough. Summer Honey-drink, i spoonful fruit juice and 1 spoonful honey in \ glass water ; stir in as much soda as will lie on a silver dime, and then stir in half as much tartaric acid, and drink at once. Honey Vinegar. Honey vinegar can be made by using 1^ ounces of honey to 1 gallon of clear soft water. Store in a barrel or other vessel. It should be kept in a warm place, with an opening in the vessel to allow tne air to circulate freely, thus causing it to come to per- fection more quickly. At the end of the year it will be ready for use. Its keeping qualities are excellent, and the best of pickles can be made with it. There is, perhaps, nothing superior for using with vegetable and meat salads. LIST OF BULLETINS. Published by the Ontario Department of Agriculture, Toronto. Serial No. Date. Ill Dec- 1900 112 Dec. 1900 113 Mar. 1901 114 May 1901 115 July 1901 116 Aug. 1901 117 Jan. 1902 118 Jan. 1902 119 April 1902 120 May 1902 121 June 1902 122 .lane 1902 123 July L902 124 Dee. 1902 125 Dec. 1902 126 April 190:5 "127 May 1903 128 Aug. 1903 129 130 Dec. Dee. 1903 1903 131 Dee. 1903 132 Dec. 1903 1 33 1 34 Dec. June 1903 1904 1 35 June 1904 136 Aug. 1904 137 Aug. 1901 138 139 Feb. Feb. 1905 1905 140 Feb. 1905 141 April 1905 142 143 144 May June June 1905 L905 1005 1 15 June 1905 146 Nov. 1905 Title. Author Lucerne or Alfalfa R. Harcourt. Foul Brood of bees F. C. Harrison. Sugar Beet Experiments in Ontario A.E. Shuttleworth. ] (airy Bulletin (see No. 143) Dairy School. Comparative Values of Ontario Wheat for Bread making purposes R. Harcourt. Notes on Varieties of Winter Wheat C. A. Zavitz. The Bessian Fly in Ontario Win. Lochhead. Pasteurization of Milk for Butter-Making { ]r ' ( . 'pi ar risori Yeast and its Household Use F. C. Harrison. Ventilation of Farm Stables and Dwellings.. J. B. Reynold Bitter Milk and Cheese F. C. Harrison. Ripening of Cheese in Cold Storage compared / H. H. Dean. with ripening in ordinary Curing Rooms IF. C. Harrison. Spray Calendar Wm. Lochhead. ., , " ,, c „ r J. B. Reynolds. (old Storage ol *rmt j jj [ Hutt Nature Study, or Stories in Agriculture Staff, O.A.C. n . „. c t> u \ JF. C. Harrison. Ri »up i A Disease of Poultry) , H s , ,. e j t „ , ,, „, ., J C. A. Zavitz Peas and 1 ea \\ eevil . Wm L()( . hhea(1 . Farm Poultry W. R. ( rraham . mi a,- i e r\ * ■ f F- C. Harrison. The tt eeds of Ontario { Wm Loc hhead. Bacon Production G. E. Day. Bacterial Content of Cheese cured at different (F. ('. Harrison. Temperatures 1 Wm. T. Connell. Ripening of Cheese in Cold Storage compared fH. II. Dean. with Ripening in Ordinary Curing Room IB. Harcourt. -r. s. ^ * i cu i JF. C. Harrison. Roup ; An Experimental Study jj streit Presenl Condition of San Jose Scale in Ontario. Wm. Lochhead. Hints in .Making Nature Collections in Public and High Schools W. II. Muldrew. mi , ,, • n J H. H. Dean. The Cream-Gathering Creamery I J. A. McFeetei Son;,' bacterial Diseases of Plants prevalent in i F. C. Harrison. ( rhtario IB. barlow. A Bacterial Disease of Cauliflower and Allied ills F. C. Harrison. The Composition of Ontario Feeding Stuffo. . . W. P. < -amble. An Experimental Shipment of Fruit to Winni- peg I. B. Reynold The Results of Field Experiments with Farm Crops C- A. Zavitz. Gas- Producing Bacteria and Their Effecl on Milk and its Products F. C. Harris Outlines of Nature-Study Wm. Lochhead. Dairy Scl I Bulletin. Dairy School Apple Culture H. 1.. Ibitt. D ' ,, t - I "■ '•• Dean. Butter Preservatives \ R Harcourt . 5 of Fruits, Vegetables and Honey ONTARIO DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Fruit Experiment Stations BULLETIN 147 Fruits Recommended for Planting in Ontario PUBLISHED BY THE ONTARIO DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE TORONTO. ONT.. FEBRUARY. 1906 Printed by L. K. CAMERON. Printer to the King's Most Excellent Majcitr BULLETIN 147.] [FEBRUARY, 1906. Ontario Department of Agriculture, FRUIT EXPERIMENT STATIONS. FRUIT RECOMMENDED FOR PLANTING. In Various Parts of the Province of Ontario, after Careful Tests of Varieties made at the Various Fruit Experiment Stations. FRUIT EXPERIMENT STATIONS. BOARD OF CONTROL, 1906. G. C. Creelman, B.S.A., President of Agricultural College, Guelpk, Chairman. H. L. Hutt, E.S.A., Professor of Horticulture, Guelph. W. T. Macoun, Horticulturist at Central Experimental Farm, Ottawa. Elmer Lick, Director of Ontario Fruit Growers' Association, Oshawa. A. M. Smith, Director of Ontario Fruit Growers' Association, Port Dalhousie. P. W. Hodgetts, Sec'y of the Ontario Fruit Growers' Association, Toronto. Linus Woolverton, M.A., Grimsby, Secretary. THE ONTARIO FRUIT STATIONS. Name. Fruit. Experimenter. 1 Southwestern.. Peaches W. W. Hilborn, Leamington. 2 Wentworth Grapes .Murray Pettit, Winona. 3 Burlington Blackberries and Currants ...A. W. Peart. Burlington. 4 Lake Huron... Raspberries A. E. Sherrington, Walkerton. 5 Georgian Bay. Plums J. G. Mitchell, Clarksburg. 6 Simcoo Hardy Apples and Hardy Cherries G. C. Caston. Craighurst. 7 Bay of Quinto'.. Anples V\ . H. Dempsey, Trenton. 8 St. Lawrence... Hardy Plums and Hardy Pears Harold Jones, Maitland. 9 Strawberry Station »E. B. Stevenson, Ponsonby. 10 Maplehurst Cherries. Peaches, Pears. Plums, and other tender fruits ; also a general col- lection of fruits for descrip- tive work for " Fruits of Ontario" L. Woolverton. Grimsby. 11 Algoma Hardy fruits ('has. Young, Richard's Landing. EXPLANATORY REMARKS. General Lists. After testing- a large number of varieties of fruit fit the various fruit stations, the Board of Control has decided upon the following as the most desirable for general planting. District Lists. The District Lists given by the various experi- menters show varieties especially adapted to the sections represented by their stations. The term Commercial is intended to include the varieties most desirable for market purposes and the term Domestic those most desir- able for home uses, either cooking or dessert. These lists are given, as far as possible, in the order of ripening. It is realized that there are many varieties not included in these fists which may do well under special conditions , yet which are generally not considered as desirable as those mentioned. The Board of Control recognizing the great disadvantage which faces inexperienced persons who desire to engage in fruit growing for profit, because of the very large and confusing list of varieties, has ordered the publication of select lists of tested varieties which shall serve as a guide to intending planters. APPLES. General List of the most Valuable Varieties for Market Approved by the Board of Control. Summer. Astrachan : Adapted to all sections except the extreme north. Duchess : Adapted to all sections. Fall. Gravenstein : Adapted to all sections except the St. Lawrence River and other northerly portions of the Province. Wealthy : Particularly valuable for northern sections. Alexander : Especially for northern districts. Mcintosh : Adapted especially to the St. Lawrence River district, but can be grown over a much wider area. Famcuse : Adapted especially to the St. Lawrence River district, but succeeds well over a much wider area. Blenheim : Adapted to all sections except the St. Lawrence River district and other northerly portions of the Province. Winter. King : Adapted only to the best apple sections, and succeeds best when top grafted on hardy stocks. Hubbardston : Adapted to the best apple sections. Greening : Adapted to the best apple sections. Baldwin : Succeeds best on clay land, and is adapted to the best apple districts. Northern Spy : Adapted to the best apple districts, but can be grown with success farther north by top-grafting- on hardy stocks. This is also a good method of bringing it into early bearing. Ontario : An early and abundant bearer, but short lived. Recom- mended as a filler among long lived trees. Adapted to same districts as Northern Spy, which it somewhat resembles. Stark : Adapted to best apple districts. Varieties Especially Adapted to Home Use. Summer. Transparent : Adapted to all sections. Primate : Adapted to best apple sections. Sweet Bough : Adapted to best apple sections. Duchess : Adapted to all sections. Fall. Chenango : Adapted to best apple sections. Gravenstein : Adapted to best apple sections. Wealthy : Especially adapted to northern sections. Mcintosh : Especially adapted to northern sections. Fameuse : Especially adapted to northern sections. Blenheim : Adapted to best apple sections. Winter. King : Adapted to best apple sections. Should be top grafted. Wagoner : Adapted to best apple sections. Swayzie : Adapted to all sections except most northerly. Greening : Adapted to best apple districts. Tolman : Adapted to best apple districts. Northern Spy : Adapted to best apple districts, but will succeed farther north if top grafted. Mann : Adapted to best apple districts, but will succeed farther north if top grafted. Hardy Varieties Recommended for Sections North op Latitude 46 Degrees. Summer. Yellow Transparent, Charlamoff. 4 Fall and Winter. Duchess, Wealthy, Hibernal, Longfield, Patten, Whitney, Hyslop, Scott Winter. Crabs Suitable for the Whole of the Province. Whitney: A large crab of high quality, suitable for planting in the .extreme north where other apples will not succeed. May be used for dessert or cooking. Martha : An early crab of fair quality. Transcendent : Yellowish crab, season early autumn. Hyslop : Dark, rich, red crab, of late season, quality only fair. District Lists Recommended by the Experimenters. Niagara District : By Linus Woolverton, Grimsby, Ont. Commercial : Astrachan, Duchess, Gravenstein, Alexander, Blen- heim, Cranberry, Hubbardston, King, Greening, Baldwin, Spy. Domestic : Early Harvest, Sweet Bough, Duchess, Chenango, Gra- venstein, Shiawassee, Fall Pippin, Fameuse, Swayzie, Wagener, Yel- low Bellflower, Esopus (Spitzenburg), Tolman. Bay of Quinte District: By W. H. Dempsey, Trenton, Ont. Commercial : Duchess, Gravenstein, Trenton, Alexander, Wealthy, Fameuse, Mcintosh, King, Greening, .Baldwin, Ontario, Seek, Spy, Tolman. Ben Davis, Stark. Domestic : Benoni, Primate, Gravenstein, Fameuse, Mcintosh, Grimes, Greening (R.I.), Ontario, Spy, Tolman, Swayzie. Burlington District : By A. W. Peart, Burlington, Ont. Commercial : Astrachan, Duchess, Wealthy, Ribston, Blenheim, King, Greening, Baldwin, Spy. Domestic : Astrachan, Sweet Bough, Gravenstein, Wagener, Seek, Golden Russet. Lake Simcoe District : By G. C. Caston, Craighurst, Ont. Commercial : Duchess, Peerless, Alexander, Wolf, Blenheim, Pewaukee, Stark, and the following if top-worked on hardy stocks : Greening, King, Ontario, Baldwin, Spy. Domestic : Astrachan, Primate, St. Lawrence, Fameuse, Mcintosh, King, Spy. Lake Huron District : By A. E. Sherrington, Walkerton, Ont. Commercial: Astrachan, Duchess, Wealthy, Fameuse, Mcintosh, Blenheim, Greening', Baldwin, Spy, Golden Russet, Ben Davis. Domestic : Transparent, Astrachan, Duchess, Mcintosh, Grimes, Blenheim, King", Spy, Golden Russet. St. Lawrence District : By Harold Jones, Maitland, Ont. Commercial : Duchess, Alexander, Wolf, Scarlet Pippin, Fameuse> Mcintosh, Baxter, Milwaukee, Golden Russet. Domestic : Transparent, Brockville Beauty, Scarlet Pippin, Fameuse, Mcintosh, Blue Pearmain, Golden Russet, Yellow Bellflower. Algoma District : By Charles Young, Richard's Landing, Ont. Commercial and Domestic : Astrachan, Transparent, Duchess, Char- lamoff, Gideon, Longfield, Wealthy, Scott Winter. BLACKBERRIES. General List, Approved by the Board oe Control. Agawam, Snyder, Eldorado, and for southern sections, Kittatinny. District Lists Recommended by the Experimenters. Burlington District : By A. W. Peart, Burlington, Ont. Commercial and Domestic : Snyder, Ancient Briton, Western Triumph, Agawam, Taylor. Lake Simcoe District : By G. C. Caston, Craighurst, Ont. Commercial and Domestic : Agawam, Eldorado. CHERRIES. General List, Approved by the Board of Control. Hardy : Orel 25, Orel 24, Early Richmond, Montmorency, Rus- sian 207. District Lists, Recommended by the Experimenters. Niagara District : By Linus Woolverton, Grimsby, Ont. Commercial : Wood, Knight, Napoleon, Tartarian, Dyehouse, Mont- morency, Late Duke, Elkhorn, Windsor, English Morello. Domestic : May Duke, Cleveland, Knight. Elton, Tartarian, Hor- tense, Choisy, Black Eagle, Mezel, Royal Duke. 6 Lake Simcoc District : By G. C. Caston, Craighurst, Ont. Commercial and Domestic : Orel 24, Ostheim, Lithaur, Russian 207, Bessarabian, Dyehouse, English Morello. Algoma District : By Charles Young, Richard's Landing, Ont. Commercial and Domestic: Early Richmond, Montmorency, Eng- lish Morello. Bay of Qiiinte District : By W. H. Dempsey, Trenton, Ont. Commercial and Domestic : Early Richmond, Montmorency. St. Lawrence District : By Harold Jones, Maitland, Ont. Commercial and Domestic : Early Richmond, Montmorency, Orel 24, English Morello. CURRANTS. General List, Approved by the Board of Control. Black : Black Victoria, Champion, Lee, Naples, Saunders. Red : Cherry, Eay, Pomona, Red Cross, Victoria, Wilder. While: White Grape. District Lists, Recommended by the Experimenters. Burlington District : By A. W. Peart, Burlington, Ont. Commercial : Black : Lee, Naples, Saunders. Red : Cherry, Fay, North Star, Prince Albert, Vic- toria, Wilder. White : White Grape. Lake Huron District : By A. E. Sherrington, Walkerton, Ont. Black : Champion, Naples, Saunders. Red : Pomona, Red Cross. GOOSEBERRIES. General List, Approved by the Board of Control. Pearl, Downing, Red Jacket. Whitesmith is one of the best English varieties, but is almost valueless on some soils and in some localities owinjr to mildew. GRAPES. General List, Approved by the Board of Control. Commercial and Domestic : Black: Moore, Campbell, Worderi, Concord, Wilder. Red : Delaware, Lindley, Agawam, Vergennes. White : Niagara, Diamond. For Northern Sections : Black : Champion, Moore, Campbell, Worden, Wilder. Red : Mover, Brighton, Delaware, Lindley. White : Winchell, Diamond. District Lists, Recommended by the Experimenters. Wentworth District: By M. Pettit, Winona, Ont. Commercial : Black : Champion, Moore, Campbell, Worden, Concord. Red : Delaware, Lindley, Agawam, Vergennes, Catawba. White : Niagara, Diamond. Domestic : Black : Black Delaware, Early Dawn. Red : Jefferson, Mills. White : Winchell, Golden Drop. Niagara District : By Linus Woolverton, Grimsby, Ont. Domestic : Moyer, Campbell, Worden, Delaware, Lindley, Brighton, Wilder, Agawam, Requa. PEACHES. General List, Approved by the Board of Control. Commercial : Sneed : Whitefleshed, clingstone, quality only fair, earliest of all. Alexander : Whitefleshed, clingstone. Hynes : Whitefleshed, semicling, quality good. St. John : Yellowfleshed, freestone, quality good. Mountain Rose : Whitefleshed, freestone, quality very good. Early Crawford : Yellowfleshed, freestone, quality very good. Champion : Whitefleshed, freestone, quality very good, for home use, or near markets. Brigdon : Yellowfleshed, freestone, quality good. Fitzgerald : Yellowfleshed, freestone, quality very good. 8 Reeves : Yellowfleshed, freestone, quality fair, large size. Elberta : Yellowfleshed, freestone, quality fair, good for long dis- tance shipments. Oldmixon: Whitefleshed, freestone, quality good. Stevens : Whitefleshed, freestone, quality good. Smock: Yellowfleshed, freestone, quality fair,, very late, good shipper. Domestic : Hynes, St. John, Early Crawford, Oldmixon, Longhurst, Stevens. District Lists, Recommended by the Experimenters. Niagara District : By Linus Woolverton, Grimsby, Out. Commercial : Sneed, Alexander, Greensboro, St. John, Early Craw- ford, New Prolific, Champion, Elberta, Willet, Smock. Domestic: Rivers, Hynes, St. John, Early Michigan, Lewis, Crosby, Champion, Reeves, Wonderful, Jacques Rareripe, Wheatland, -Long- hurst. Essex District: By W. W. Hilborn, Leamington, Out. Commercial : Alexander, St. John, Brigdon, Early Crawford, Fitz- gerald, New Prolific, Engol, Elberta, Golden Drop, Kalamazoo, Banner, Smock. Domestic (Whiteflesh) : Alexander, Mountain Rose, Oldmixon, Stevens. (Yellowflesh) : St. John, Early Crawford, Fitzgerald, New Prolific, Engol, Crosby, Golden Drop, Banner. PEARS. General List, Approved by the Board of Control. Commercial: Giffard, Clapp, Bartlett, Boussock, Flemish (hardy, subject to spot), Howell, Louise, Duchess, Bosc, Clairgeau, Anjou, Kieffer. Domestic: Summer Doyenne, Giffard, Bartlett, Flemish (for the north), Sheldon, Seckel, Bosc, Anjou, Lawrence, Josephine, Winter Nelis. DlSTKKT LlSTS, RECOMMENDED BY THE EXPERIMENTERS. Niagara District: By Linus Woolverton, Grimsby, Out. Commercial : Chambers, Wilder, Giffard, Clapp, Bartlett, Hardy, Bosc, Howell, Louise, Duchess, Pitmaston, Clairgeau, Anjou, Easter Beurrc. Domestic : Doyenne, Manning, Giffard, Boussock, Rostiezer, Mar- guerite, Sheldon, Seckel, Triumph, Ritson, Louise, Hardy, Diel, Anjou, Lawrence. Burlington District : By A. W. Peart, Burlington, Ont. Commercial : Wilder, Clapp, Bartlett, Boussock, Louise, Duchess (dwarf), Anjou, Kieffer,. Winter Nelis, Easter Beurre. Domestic : Wilder, Bartlett, Louise, Anjou, Winter \elis. Bay of Quinte District : By W. H. Dempsey, Trenton, Ont. Commercial and Domestic : Giffard, Tyson, Clapp, Boussock, Hardy ; White Doyenne, Dempsey, Bosc, Clairgeau, Goodale, Lawrence, Jose- phine. St. Lawrence District : By Harold Jones, Maitland. Domestic : Clapp, Flemish, Ritson. PLUMS. General List, Approved by the Board of Control. ■Commercial and Domestic : American : These are extremely hardy and are desirable where the European and Japanese varieties cannot be grown : Aitkin, Cheney, Bixby, Mankato, W r olf, Hawkeye, Stoddard. European : Bradshaw, Imperial Gage, Gueii, Shipper's Pride, Lom- bard (liable to over bear, requires thinning), Quackenboss, Yeflpw Egg, Grand Duke, Golden Drop (Coe), Reine Claude (one of the best for canning). Japanese : These are apparently quite as hardy as the European varieties : Red June, Abundance, Burbank, Chabot, Satsuma (red fleshed, desirable for canning). District Lists, Recommended by the Experimenters. Lake Huron District : By A. E. Sherrington, Walkerton, Ont. Commercial and Domestic: Red June, Ogon, Burbank, Bradshaw, Imperial Gage, Gueii, Shipper's Pride, Victoria, Quackenboss, Yellow Eesr, Monarch, Grand Duke, Satsuma. 10 Georgian Bay District : By John Mitchell, Clarksburg. Commercial and Domestic : Red June, Burbank, Washington, Brad- shaw, Imperial Gage, Quackenboss, Arch Duke, Diamond, Monarch, Yellow Egg, Golden Drop (Coe), Satsuma, Reine Claude. Burlington District: By A. W. Peart, Burlington, Ont. Commercial : European: Bradshaw, Niagara, Imperial Gage, Lombard, Yellow Egg, Glass, Reine Claude. Japan : Red June, Abundance, Burbank, Chabot, Satsuma. Domestic : Abundance, Saunders, Bradshaw, Imperial Gage, Smith Orleans, Lombard, Yellow Egg, Satsuma, Reine Claude. Niagara District : By Linus Woolverton, Grimsby, Ont. Commercial : Red June, Burbank, Bradshaw, Chabot, Gueii, Golden Drop (Coe), Quackenboss, Satsuma, Reine Claude. Domestic : Abundance, Washington, Yellow Egg, Shropshire, Quackenboss, Satsuma, Reine Claude. St. Lawrence District : By Harold Jones, Maitland, Ont. Domestic : European : Gueii, Lombard, Shipper's Pride, Glass. Japan : Red June, Burbank. American : Milton, Whitaker, Hammer. QUINCES. General List, Approved ry the Board of Control. Fuller, Orange (the leading market variety in Ontario), Champion (for Southern Ontario only as it ripens too late for other sections). RASPBERRIES. General List, Approved by the Board of Control. Black : Hilborn, Older, Gregg, Smith Giant. Purple : Columbian, Shaffer. Red : Marlboro,, Herbert, Cuthbert. White : Golden Queen. 11 District Lists, Recommended by the Experimenters. Lake Huron District : By A. E. Sherrington, Walkerton, Ont. Commercial and Domestic : Black : Hilborn, Conrath, Older. Purple : Columbian, Shaffer. Red : Marlboro, Herbert, Cuthbert. STRAWBERRIES. General List, Approved by the Board of Control. Commercial: Splendid (Perfect), Bederwood (P.), Warfield (Imper- fect), not suited to light sandy soil, Greenville (Imp.), Williams (P.), Saunders (P.), Sample (Imp.), Irene (Imp.), Buster (Imp.). Domestic: Van Deman (P.), Splendid (P.), Excelsior (P.), Senator Dunlap (P.), Ruby (P.), . Bubach (Imp.), Irene (Imp.), Belt (P.), Lovett (P.). Note. — In selecting varieties for planting, perfect-flowered varieties should be included to fertilize those having imperfect flowers. LIST OF BULLETINS. PUBLISEED BY THE OnTAKIO DEPARTMENT OF AflRICBXTUBB, TORONTO. 8erial No. Date. 111 Dec. 112 Dec. 113 Mar. 114 May 115 July 116 Aug. 117 Jan. 118 Jan. •119 April 1 20 May 121 June 122 June 123 July 124 Dec. 125 Dec. 126 April 127 May *128 Aug. ] 29 Dec. 130 Dec. 131 Dec. 132 Dec. 133 Dec. 134 June 135 Juno 136 Aug. 137 Aug. 136 Feb. 139 Feb. 140 Feb. 141 April 142 May 143 June 144 June 145 June 146 Nov. 147 Feb. 900 900 901 901 901 901 902 902 902 902 902 902 902 902 902 903 903 903 903 903 903 '903 903 904 904 904 904 905 905 905 905 905 905 905 905 905 906 Title. Author. Lucerne or Alfalfa R. Harcourt. Foul Brood of Bees F. C. Harrison. Sugar Beet Experiments in Ontario A. E. Shuttleworth. Dairy Bulletin (see No. 143) Dairy School. Comparative Values of Ontario Wheat for Breadmaking purposes R. Harcourt. Notes on Varieties of Winter Wheat C. A. Zavitz. The Hessian Fly in Ontario Wm. Lochhead. Pasteurization of Milk for Butter-Making. • • {p ' Yeast and its Household Use ' F. Ventilation of Farm Stables and Dwellings- J. Bitter Milk and Cheese F. Ripening of Cheese in Cold Storage compared / H. with ripening in ordinary Curing Rooms I F. C. Harrison. C. Harrison. B. Reynolds. C. Harrison. H. Dean. C. Harrison. Spray Calendar Wm. Lochhead. Cold Storage of Fruit { ^ £ l< Hutt. Nature Study, or Stories in Agriculture Staff, O.A.C. Roup (A Disease of Poultry) j H ' Streit. Peas and Pea Weevil \ Wm * L Shead. Farm Poultry W. R. Graham. m , „, , , r. . . /F. C. Harrison. The Weeds of Ontario | Wm Bacon Production ■> G. E Bacterial Content of Cheese cured at different /F. C Temperatures \ Wm. Ripening of Cheese in Cold Storage compared with Ripening in Ordinary Curing Room Lochhead. Day. Harrison. T. Connell. H. H. Dean. R. Harcourt. , F. C. Harrison. Roup ; An Experimental Study i jj gtreit Present Condition of San Jose Scale in Ontario Hints in Making Nature Collections in Public and High Schools W. H. Muldrew. The Cream-Gathering Creamery I J. A. McFeeters. Some Bacterial Diseases of Plants prevalent in J F. C. Harrison. Ontario IB. Barlow. A Bacterial Disease of Cauliflower and Allied Plants F. C. Harrison. Win. Lochhead. W. P. Gamble The Composition of Ontario Feeding Stuffs. An Experimental Shipment of Fruit to Winni- peg J. B. Reynolds. The Results of Field Experiments with Farm Crops C. A. Zavitz. Gas-Producing Bacteria and Their Effect on Milk and its Products F. C. Harrison. Outlines of Nature-Study Wm. Lochhead. Dairy School Bulletin Dairy School Apple Culture H. L. Hutt. n n / II. H. Dean. Butter Preservatives j R Harcourt. Uses of Fruits, Vegetables and Honey Fruits Recommended for Planting in Ontario Fruit Ex. Stations. ♦Revised and reprinted January, 1906. ONTARIO DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Ontario Agricultural College BULLETIN 148 Co-operative Experiments WITH Nodule-forming Bacteria BY F. C. HARRISON, B.A., Professor of Bacteriology AND B. BARLOW, B.S., Demonstrator in Bacteriology PUBLISHED BY THE ONTARIO DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE TORONTO, ONT., MARCH, 1906 Printed by L. K. CAMERON, Printer to the King's Most Excellent Majesty BULLETIN 148.] [MARCH, 1906. Ontario Department of Agriculture. ONTARIO AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND EXPERIMENTAL FARM CO-OPERATIVE EXPERIMENTS WITH NODULE- FORMING BACTERIA. By F. C. Harrison and B. Barlow. The nodules-forming, and nitrogen-fixing bacteria. (Magnified 1,500 times.) The issue of a number of bulletins by the United States Department ot Agriculture on " Beneficial Bacteria for Leguminous Crops," "Inocula- tion of Soil with Nitrogen-fixing Bacteria," and the publication of articles on this subject in some of the popular magazines, has called the attention ot the Canadian farming community to the maintenance of soil fertility by the growth of legumes which have been treated with beneficial bacteria, and has resulted in the many requests for information to the Bacteriologi- cal Department of the College with demands for samples of the necessary bacteria for the purpose of treating various crops such as clovers, peas, beans, etc. Hence, it seemed necessary to publish a report of what has been accomplished in this line at Guelph, tog-ether with a brief statement of the history of the discovery of the legume bacteria, their manner of growth, and how they may be utilized by the farmer. The Importance of Nitrogen to the Farmer. As is well known, nitrogen, the most important and costliest element that a farmer buys or uses for plant food, can be used by most plants combined only in the form of nitrates. The daily loss of this valuable fertilizer is enormous, and several scientists have predicted that in the course of a number of years our supply of nitrogen will be so appreciably used up that the growing of wheat and other crops will be a matter of difficulty. These men base their calculations on the loss of nitrogen which comes from the yearly cropping of land, the waste of the sewage from the great centres of populations, the loss by leaching from the soil, the action of the denitrifying bacteria, and other causes ; and they also show that the great natural stores of this element are being quickly con- sumed for agricultural purposes. Thus the guano deposits we nearly all used up, and the South American saltpetre beds are being fast exhausted. Fortunately, however, there are vast stores of nitrogen in the air, the atmosphere containing about four out of every five parts of this element, and one of the great problems of modern agriculture has been to make this store of atmospheric nitrogen available to plants, and the peculiar ability of leguminous plants to assimilate the nitrogen of the air is the faculty which makes them so valuable to the farmer. The legumes are able to achieve this result by the aid of the bacteria which are associated with them in the nodules or tubercles on their roots. Not only does the acquirement of the nitrogen from the air benefit the legume, but it also enriches the soil and renders available considerable combined nitrogen for the use of succeeding crops. Every practical farmer acknowledges these facts by introducing clover or some other legume in his rotation, knowing that the fertility of his soil is thus increased. As a result of the investigation of many Experiment Stations it has been shown that from 100 to 200 pounds per acre of nitrogen are added to the soil by the growth of a crop of legumes. Putting the matter into dollars and cents, the United States Department of Agriculture states that a crop of nodule-bearing legumes is equal to from 800 to 1,000 pounds of nitrate of soda per acre, which at the present rate for this fertilizer represents a value of from $20.00 to $25.00. The Discovery of the Nodule Bacteria The Romans were fully aware of the importance of growing legumes, and introduced such crops into their rotations, many writers in their time drew attention to the manure-like qualities of beans, vetches, etc. Thus, Pliny, a Roman writer, makes the definite statement that beans will fertilize the soil of a field or vineyard as well as the very best manure. The .true reason of these facts was, of course, not known at that time, but was attributed to the greater root development of the legumes and, in conse- quence, their ability to obtain more nourishment from the soil. The tubercles or nodules on the roots of clovers, peas, etc., had been noticed for a considerable time (since 1687). Some thought they were of parasitic origin, and others saw in them simply excrescences or galls, and a few thought they were the normal growths of the plant ; and it was not until 1886 that two German scientists, Hellriegel and Willfarth, showed that the development of the root nodules was intimately connected with the growth of the whole plant, and that the assimilation ot the nitrogen of the atmosphere by legumes was associated with the development of the nodules or tubercles on the roots. Later investigators confirmed these results, and these discoveries were quickly followed by the detection of the bacteria in the nodules, their isolation and growth on artificially prepared food and the ability of these cultivated organisms to produce other nodules when brought into contact with suitable legumes growing in sterilized or germ free soil. The first practical applications of these discoveries was the introduction of cultures or growths of these bacteria for application to the seeds of the various legumes. The trade name of Nitragin was given by Nobbe, the inventor of this method, to these cultures, and the product was extensively advertised and exploited by a German firm of manufacturing chemists. Numerous experiments were conducted with this material. Some succeeded and others failed, but after a few years' trial the manufacturers discontinued the sale of this article. About 1902 the study of the root-nodule organism was undertaken by the Laboratory of Plant Physiology of the United States Department of Agriculture, and they perfected a method by which these organisms could be sent out to farmers and used for inoculating seed. Up to November 1904, over 12,000 packages of inoculating material were distributed, and the reports of 3,540 experimentors showed that 79 per cent, of these were successful. Recently, however, some complaint has been made concerning the quality of the cultures sent out by the U. S. Department of Agriculture, the New York Experiment Station reporting the results of a bacteriological examination of 18 packages of treated cotton (the nodule-forming bacteria dried upon absorbent cotton) in which no living nodule bacteria were found. The failure of these cultures was due to their method of preparation, but the N. Y. Experiment Station state that "they should not be under- stood as being opposed to the idea of treating the seed of legumes with living bacteria.' Distribution of Cultures in Canada. During the spring of 1905, the Bacteriological Department of the Ontario Agricultural College sent out a number of samples of the nodule- forming bacteria for experimental purposes. These samples were sent out in small bottles, in such condition that all the farmer had to do was to mix the contents of the bottle with a measured quantity of water, and then apply to his seed ; this method doing away with the " building up" process advocated by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, in which a package of treated cotton, containing dried bacteria, has to be put into a solution of chemicals, and the bacteria allowed to develop for a day or two before being applied to the seeds. These samples were sent all over Canada, from Prince Edward Island to British Columbia, the number of cultures being as follows : Ontario 76 Assiniboia 13 Nova Scotia 66 New Brunswick 11 P. E. Island 17 Cape Breton 1 Quebec 10 Manitoba 23 Alberta 12 British Columbia 15 United States 2 Total . 246 They were also tested by Mr. Frank T. Shutt, Chemist, Experimental Farm, Ottawa ; by Principal M. Cumming, Agricultural College, Truro, N.S., by Mr. C. Jarvis, Assistant to Prof. L. H. Bailey, of Cornell Experiment Station, and by ourselves. At the end of the season a circular Plot of alfalfa or lucerne, grown from seed untreated with nitro-culture. ^The mark on upright stick shows height to which the alfalfa grew in the adjoining treated plot. (Experiment conducted bv Principal dimming, Agricultural College, Truro, N.S. )K , ^T\ letter was sent to all who had received cultures, asking what success each experimenter had had. These reports may be summarized thus : — Crop. Total No. of reports re- ceived. Inoculation successful, with increased growth of crop. Organisms already present in the soil. No advantages from inocula- tion. Lucerne or alfalfa Red Clover 59 47 12 9 2 1 3 1 » 134 43 31 7 5 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 15 15 Alsike White Clover 4 4 1 Vetch Sov Bean 1 91 3 40 Alfalfaor Lucerne. Plotgrown fromseed treated with alfalfa nitro-culture. The stick in the centre of the plot is covered up to ten inches from the ground with alfalfa plants. (Experiment conducted by Principal dimming, Agricultural College, rr, -'iro, N.S.) In order to give the farmers an idea of these reports, a number of extracts are given from them which show the benefit some experimenters have obtained from the use of the nitro-cultures : Taylor Village, N.B. I put three acres with the treated seed and three acres without the nitro-culture on a piece of heavy land, and in examining the plants from time to time I found that nodules were quite plentiful on the plants from the treated seed, and none on the plants from the untreated seed, and I also found the growth and thriftiness quite marked in favor of the plants from the nitro-treated seed. (Red Clover.) River John, N.S. The plants from the treated seed were thicker and thriftier than those without the nitro-cultures, which were thin and spindly. The roots on the treated spot being loaded with nodules and very fibrous, while on the untreated there is far less root growth. (Red Clover). Marshville, Out. Enclosed please find samples of what I pulled this morning (July 4th) in different* parts of the field, which I think is very satisfactory indeed. Nodules appeared when plants were just above ground. What I sowed in spring of 1904 has no nodules. (Red Clover). Note. — The one sample showed numerous nodules, the other none. — Authors. Cohvood, B.C. The part treated with nitro-culture looks green and more vigorous than the untreated. Nodules are numerous on the treated portion. (Red Clover.) Fingal, Out. The rootlets of the plants treated with nitro-culture were simply clustered with nodules. Without nitro-culture, nodules were not so numerous, but were present. (Red Clover). Colina, B.C. The clover plants were a lot better on the treated land. (Red Clover.) Emerson, Man. On some plants treated the nodules were quite numerous. Those having nodules were very vigorous, bnt the others have made but small growth. (Red Clover.) Neepaiva, Man. The vigor of plants from seed treated with nitro- culture was very good. The untreated seed produced pale and short plants. (Red Clover.) Edmonton, Alia. Numerous nodules on plants from treated seed and very healthy stand. With the untreated seed the plants were sickly with a few healthy stalks. (Red Clover.) Deep Brook, N.S. Soon after seeding I commenced examining plants on the treated patch and found nodules present which increased in size and number each week as the season advanced. There was a marked differ- ence between the plants from treated and untreated seed in favor of the former. (Red Clover.) Berwick, N.S. The plants from treated seed were quite vigorous, those from untreated only half as high. (Red Clover.) Root of Sanfoin, showing nodules. Cypress River, Man. Plants from treated seed very strong with numerous nodules, without nitro-culture much smaller and weaker. (Red Clover.) Stamford, Out. Vigor of plants from treated seed good, without nitro-culture no catch. (Red Clover.) Meadowville, N.S. Very vigorous plants with numerous nodules from the treated seed, only fair stand from untreated. (Red Clover.) Port Williams, N.S. In the early part of the season the division line between the Inoculated plants and the uninoculated was very marked. 8 Nodules were very numerous on the treated plants but only a few present on some of the untreated. (Red Clover.) Naiveig, N.B. Very vigorous and numerous nodules from the treated seed ; not nearly so vigorous without'the nitro-culture. (Beans.) Cedar Springs, Ont. I am convinced the application was a success. (Beans.) Mount Salem, Ont. The nodules on the beans not treated were small, about the size of pin-heads, and pods on plants were short. On the plants treated the nodules were as large as small peas, growing tight against one another. The pods on the plants were longer and the plants withstood dry weather better than those not treated, being green and flourishing when the others were dried up, The beans when ripe were bright and even in the pods. I exhibited half a bushel of these at the East Elgin Fair and secured first prize on them. (Beans.) Cedar Springs, Ont. The nodules were larger and more numerous on the plants from the treated seed. Those of the untreated had nodules, but they were not so large and easily one-third less in number. (Beans.) Cross Roads, N.S. Nodules present on the plants from treated seed, fairly vigorous growth. Without nitro-culture the plants were poor and no nodules were present. (Vetch.) IVaterville, N.S. The plants from treated seed were very strong, many roots were a solid mass of nodules. From untreated seed plants were not so good and had very few nodules. (Vetch) Rapid City, Man. Plants from treated seed strong, numerous nodu- les ; from untreated seed plants only about half as big. (Alsike clover.) Barrie, Ont. I found the culture very satisfactory, the yield of peas being fully ten per cent, more from the seed treated with culture. (Peas.) Rulhven, Ont. Very vigorous plants from the treated seed with numerous nodules. Without treatment the plants were about the usual size and few nodules. (Peas.) Colqnitz, B. C. I find that in the portion of ground where this cul- ture was used, plants seem to be thriving and have the nodules on the roots, while, at the same time, on ground seeded to alfalfa close by on which the culture was not used, the plants are sickly looking and have no nodules upon the roots. (Alfalfa.) Lion's Head, Ont. The alfalfa seed sown by me this spring, and treated with nitro-culture obtained from you, has grown without a check. That without the culture came up in patches, but did no more. As the alfalfa has failed here before I attribute my success to the culture. (Alfalfa.) Round Hill, N. S. From treated seed the growth of plants was 25 inches, from seed untreated about one inch. (Alfalfa.) Windsor Mills, Que. Plants from treated seed strong and healthy, those without nitro-culture only fair. Root'of Red Clover, showing nodules. 2— Bull. 148 10 Harding, Man. There was quite a marked difference between what was treated and what was not treated, and I consider the result was very g-ood. (Alfalfa.) Mount Stewart, P. E. I. Plants from treated seed were dark green and quite vigorous. From untreated seed the plants were yellow and unthrifty. (Alfalfa.) Colquitz, B.C. I am not a believer in nitro-culture, or, at least, was very skeptical as to the treatment being of any value whatever. I have bsen unable, however, to shut my eyes to the tact as shown by my own land. The land had been well sub-soiled in preparation to a depth of from 16 to 18 inches, and the portion upon which the nitro-culture was not used was treated in every way as well as the other. The plants from the treated seed were very strong and sown with nurse crop are now about 8 inches high. From untreated seed the plants are weak in appearance and only about 3 inches high. (Alfalfa.) Centretown, Ont. The plants from treated seed sown on very light sandy soil were healthy and grew rapidly. Those from untreated seed were delicate and of stunted growth. (Alfalfa.) Cloverdale, B.C. Plants from treated seed are healthy in color and 18 inches high, from untreated seed 4 to 6 inches high and yellow. I may say in conclusion that the quarter acre oi' untreated seed was planted on better land which had been under cultivation in root crops for two years and had been slightly manured with barnyard manure and lime previously. The treated seed was planted on absolutely new forest land which is almost void of humus and available nitrogen. This speaks well for the cultures. (Alfalfa.) Charlottetown, P.E.I. The boundary between the two plots is dis- tinctly marked, that growing from the inoculated seed is a richer green and of stronger growth. (Alfalfa.) Brule, X.S. The difference between treated and untreated plants was more marked after the first cutting. The treated are now about one foot high and oi' a dark green healthy color. The untreated are only a few- inches high and except in a few scattered bunches are yellow and sickly. (Alfalfa.)' Marshville, Ont. I sowed two acres last spring without "nitroculture and the roots are smaller than what I sowed this spring with treated seed. (Alfalfa.) St. Catharines, Ont. The culture was used on alfalfa sown in April on fall wheat about 15 pounds per acre. The stand at present is considered good, a difference being evident in favor of the nitro-culture treated seed. (Alfalfa.) Treesbank, Man. Nodules are plentiful on the part sowed with the treated seed, but 1 have not been able to find any on the other strip seeded 11 with untreated seed. Furthermore, the second growth on the untreated strip is now sickly looking- and much shorter than the rest. (Alfalfa.) In addition to these reports, special mention may be made ot the results obtained by Principal Cumming, of the Nova Scotia Agricultural College, Mr. F. T. Shutt, Chemist, Central Experimental Farm, Ottawa, and Mr. C. Jarvis, Assistant in Horticulture, Cornell University Experi- Peas grown in awarnp soil. The routs on plant marked "0" had no nodules. Peas planted in the other two pote marked "Culture" and "Lime and Culture" were tn-ated with nitro-cuJture. The pot with lime was treated at the rate of 1,000 pounds of lime to the acre. The roots of these two plants had numerous nodules. 12 ment Station, as these gentlemen are accustomed to carrying out experi- mental work. Principal dimming writes as follows : — " The only positive results we have to report are with your alfalfa culture. Our red clover was sown just in time to catch the drought, and neither that treated with culture or left untreated amounted to much. "The peas and vetches all grew very rank, and it was impossible to notice any difference between the treated and untreated plots. With the alfalfa we were more successtul, having sown it just at the right time. We conducted the experiment in duplicate, and had side by side plots that were untreated with culture, plots treated with United States Department of Agriculture culture, and plots treated with your culture . For some reason or other, we got no decided results with United States culture; possibly it was not rightly handled. Of this I am not sure, for I was away from home when the seed was treated. The most marked results were found on a piece of land, which was seeded with a nurse crop of barley. The plot that was treated with your culture has, at the present time, a most vigorous growth of alfalfa, the plants being on an average of eight inches high, which, considering the dry season, is very good. On the untreated plot adjoining the alfalfa will not average more than one inch in height, and the plants are rather sickly looking. " I sent you by last night's mail a representative plant from each plot, and you will readily observe the decided difference in the nodular growth. I have sent a picture of the two plots to the " Farmer's Advocate" asking them to make plates. " Our most striking results are on a piece of land which was in roots last year, and consequently was free from weeds of all kinds when the alfalfa was sown. We tried a duplicate experiment on a piece of land, which was ploughed out of sod after having been down fifteen or twenty years. We grew six plots on this piece of land ; two untreated, which amounted to almost nothing ; two treated with United States culture, which are little, if any better, and two treated with your culture, which are so strikingly superior that you can pick out the plot almost as far away as you can see. "In the light of these results we are very anxious to continue our work and would like especially to treat red clover seed as successfully as we seem to have treated alfalfa." The results obtained at the Dominion Experimental Farm were as follows : — Pot Experiments. Clover, sown May 6th., 3 cuttings. Total weight of green crops from untreated seed. . .374.7 grams. inoculated seed. .450.7 inoculated soil.. .440.4 A difference of about 17 percent, and 15 per cent, respectively in favor of inoculated 13 Pot Experiments. Alfalfa, sownMay 6th., 3 cutting's. Total weight of green crop from untreated seed. . . .204.5 grams. " " inoculated seed. .. .217.3 " «< " inoculated soil 249.1 " Soy Bean Plant. The one on the left is from untreated seed, that on the right from seed treated with nitro-culture. 14 A difference of about 6 per cent, and 18 per cent, respectively in favor of 'inoculation. Plot Experiments. Clover sown May 9th. Each plot 22 by 33 feet. lbs. ozs. Hay crop from untreated seed (2 cuttings) 46 11 " " " inoculated seed (2 cuttings) .. .;■_ . 59 13 A difference of a little more than 22 per cent, in favor of inoculated seed. Plot Experiments. Alfalfa, Sown May 9th. Each plot 22 by 33 feet. lbs. ozs. Hay crop from untreated seed (3 cuttings) 88 4 " " " treated seed (3 cuttings) 62 13 A difference of nearly 3o per cent, in favor of the untreated seed. Mr. Shutt makes no explanation of this difference in favor of the untreated seed, but writes : "The nodules on the foots of the untreated alfalfa appeared to be just as numerous as on the roots of the inoculated. "The soil is a light, sandy loam, fairly rich in humus. It has in all probability carried legumes, but not for some years." Mr. C. Jarvis, of the Department of Horticulture, Cornell University, tried the culture on the Mohawk variety of bean. Each row was 20 feet long. His results are as follows : — "1. Mohawk Beans untreated — 30 plants, no nodules. " 2. Beans treated with fresh culture and sown at once — 27 plants, 12 with nodules. "3. Beans seeded two weeks later but treated same time as in Experiment 2. — 35 plants, 2 with nodules. "4. Beans untreated sown at same time as in Row 3 — 37 plants, 7 with nodules. . "5. Beans treated with culture 1 month old and sown in a moist condition — 31 plants, 6 with nodules. " G Beans untreated sown at same time as No. 5 — 35 plants, 3 with nodules." As will be seen from above the best results were obtained from fresh culture used according to directions ; the remaining experiments were conducted on Mr. Jarvis' own initiative. Mr. Jarvis remarks: "Had some other variety of bean been used in place of Mohawk, which is a very hardy, strong growing variety, a difference in growth may have been apparent." As the Bacteriological Department intends to continue experimental work along this line, and will send out nitro-cultures in the spiring of 1906, some information is needed regarding the use of the cultures and their application; hence a few notes are given for the guidance ojf those who desire to experiment with these beneficial bacteria. 15 Roots of Soy Bean. Those on the left are from untreated seed, while those on the right L._i are from seed treated with nitro-culture. Note the nodules on the roots. 16 I It should be thoroughly understood that these nitro-cultures are of use for! legumes only, such as the clovers, beans, peas, and vetches, or, as they are sometimes termed, the pod-bearing plants. We have had a number of 'applications for nitro-culture for inoculating wheat, turnips, etc., but these bacteria are of no use whatever for such crops. i^OIInoculation — and by inoculation we mean the treatment of the soil or'seed with the nodule forming bacteria — is necessary when the land has never before been seeded down to a leguminous crop, or if legumes have grown in it without forming the characteristic nodules or tubercles, which is proof that the nodule bacteria for that particular crop are not present in the soil. In such cases as these the farmer may well resort to inoculation. Inoculation is also desirable if a farmer wishes to grow a new kind of legume on land even though it has previously grown excellent crops of a different species of legume. Thus, although red clover may have been successfully grown, with a large number of nodules on the roots, the bac- teria from these nodules may not infect alfalfa or lucerne if it were planted in the clover soil, and hence, inoculation with bacteria taken from the afalfa nodules, would be desirable. So also, when introducing the culture of vetches, of field beans, and soy beans, it would be necessary to treat the seed with bacteria taken from these plants. In some cases, bacteria derived from closely related species are mutually available, thus bacteria from sweet clover (Melilotus) are capable of infecting afalfa. It seems especially desirable in Ontario to inoculate the field bean and soy bean, as experiments have shown that Ontario soils are not so generally infected with the bacteria appropriate for these plants as for the other legumes, and there is less possibility of their becoming inoculated from the bacteria of closely related wild legumes, on account of the relative scarcity of the latter plants. The employment of nitro-cultures is recommended also on soils which produce a weak growth oi~ legumes even when nodules are present, the more vigorous bacteria of the culture aiding the plant to fix more nitrogen and in those cases where the leguminous crop is not producing the highest yield. A word of warning is necessary with regard to failures in the use of these nitro-cultures, and also with regard to their use as a remedy for lack of. care in preparation and cultivation of the soil. No benefit may be expected from the use of nitro-cultures if they are improperly prepared, the directions for their use are clearly set forth, and should be strictly followed. The farmer simply invites failure, if, for example, as some have done, he disregards the directions and uses the culture on turnip seed, instead ot forj the legume for which the culture was prepared. Failure of plants to form nodules, even when the seed is inoculated, may result if : 1 . The soil is too acid or too alkaline. Lime should be first applied if the soil is too acid. 2. If some fertilizer with a caustic action is brought into contact with the treated seed. 17 Little benefit may result from innoculation : 1. If the soil does not contain sufficient of the other necessary plant foods, especially potash and phosphoric acid. 2. If the soil is too rich in nitrogen'; in this case it is better to plant crops that are nitrogen feeders rather than nitrogen accumulators. 3. If the soil is not properly cultivated and freed from weeds. 4. If the soil is already thoroughly inoculated with the nitrogen-fixing bacteria. Methods of Inoculating. There are three methods of inoculating the crop : — 1. By transfer of soil. 2. By treating the soil. 3. By treating the seed. In the first case, soil which is known to contain the nodule-producing organisms is scattered over the land where it is desired to grow a crop of legumes. In other words, the land is top-dressed with soil from an infected field. This method has given good results, but is expensive when the soil has to be brought any distance, and in certain sections of the country such a practice is fraught with danger, as weed seeds and certain diseases are apt to be transferred from one field to another by this means. In the second method, a quantity of soil is moistened with large quantities of culture, and this is mixed with more dry soil, and then used as a top dressing on the land that is to be planted. We have not tried this method of soil inoculation, and it is not convenient for our method of culture distribution. For small gardens, liquid cultures mav be used and applied by means of a watering can to the young plants, but it is far better to have the bacteria on the seed so that the plant may become inoc- ulated when they commence to grow. The third method, seed treatment, consists in moistening the seed with a culture or growth of the desirable bacteria, allowing the seed to dry for a short time and immediately sowing it. We recommend that cultures supplied by us be used for seed inoculation. Directions for the use of Nitro-cultures Supplied by the Bacteri- ological Department of the Ontario Agricultural College. The culture is sent you with the understanding that it is to be used for experimental purposes and that you will use it as directed and report to us your success or failure. 1. For every 60 pounds of seed to be treated take one and one-half pints of clean cool water in a small pail. 2. Pour some of the water into the bottle, shake the bottle and pour back the water into the pail. Repeat this until the culture is all rinsed from the bottle into the pail and the water in the pail is clouded. The jelly-like substance in the bottle is agar, it will not dissolve, but mav be broken up and stirred in the water. 18 3. Pour the water from the pail over the seed and mix thoroughly. 4. Spread out the seed to dry in a clean place out of the sunshine. 5. The seed will dry in an hour and may be planted in the usual manner as soon as it is dry. 6. Do not add water to the culture in the bottle until you are ready to plant your seed. 7. Some untreated seed should be planted far comparison and it is well to plant this first. 8. After the seedlings are one month old, look for nodules on the roots. During the season note number and size of nodules and vigor of plant growth from treated and untreated seed. 19 ANNOUNCEMENT. For the sprang- of 1906 the Bacteriological Department is preparing to send out a limited number of cultures for the inoculation of the follow- ing legumes : Red Clover, Alsike Clover, Alfalfa or Lucerne, Field Peas, Vetches, Field Beans and Soy Beans, Those desiring cultures will please make application according to the following blank form. Application for Nitro-culture. I should like to conduct an experiment with Nitro-culture for Red Clover, Alfalfa or Lucerne, Vetches, Soy Beans, Alsike Clover, Field Feas, Field Beans. (Strike out those not wanted). State probable date of seeding. If the material is sent to me I shall endeavor— 1. Carry on the test according to the instructions received. 2. Exercise care and accuracy in the work. 3. Report the results of the experiment as soon as possible after harvest, whether successful or not. Name Post Office Express Office. County Province This sheet when filled out should be addressed to the Bacteriological Department, Agricultural College, Guelph, Ontario, and will require 2 cents postage whether the envelope is sealed or not. LIST OF BULLETINS. Published by the Ontario Department of Agriculture, Toronto. Serial No. Date. 115 July 1901 116 Aug. 1901 117 Jan. 1902 118 Jan. 1902 119 April 1902 120 May 1902 121 June 1902 122 June 1902 123 July 1902 124 Dec. 1902 125 Dec. 1902 120 April 1903 127 May L903 12S Aug. 1903 129 130 Dec. Dec. 1903 1903 131 Dec. 1903 132 Dec. 1903 133 Dec. 1903 134 June 1904 135 June 1901 13R Aug. 1904 137 Aug. 1904 138 Feb. 139 Feb. 142 May 143 June 144 June 146 Nov. 147 Feb. L905 L905 140 Feb. 1905 141 April 1905 1905 L905 1905 145 June 1905 1905 1906 148 Mar. 1901! Title. Author. Comparative Values of Ontario Wheat for Breadmaking purposes R. Harcourt. Notes on Varieties of Winter Wheat C. A. Zavitz. The Hessian Fly in Ontario Wm. Lochhea.i. Pasteurization of Milk for Butter-Making.. . {j?' q Harrison Yeast and its Household Use F. C. Harrison. Ventilation of Farm Stables and Dwellings. J. B. Reynolds. Bitter Milk and Cheese F. C. Harrison. Ripening of Cheese in Cold Storage compared /H. H. Dean. with ripening in ordinary Curing Rooms IF. C. Harrison. Spray Calendar Wm. Lochhead. ., .,-_. . „ i J. B. Reynolds. Cold Storage of Fruit | ^ ^ Hutt Nature Study, or Stories in Agriculture Staff, O.A.C. Roup (A Disease of Poultry) i t,' gV-gU ti 'i n Au -i i C. A. Zavitz Peas and Pea \Y eevil \ Wm Lo( . h head. Farm Poultry W. R. Graham . m, „ r -. £ ,. (F. C. Harrison. The Weeds of Ontario { Wm Lochhead . Bacon Production G. E. Day. Bacterial Content of Cheese cured at different /F. C. Harrison. Temperatures 1 Wm. T . Connell . Ripening of Cheese in Cold Storage compared /H. H. Dean. with Ripening in Ordinary Curing Room JR. Harcourt . ., i I? . i ... i JF. C. Harrison. Roup ; An Experimental Study 1 u Qf re jf Present Condition of San Jose Scale in Ontario Wm. Lochhead. Hints in Making Nature Collections in Puhlic and High Schools W. H. Muldrew. The Cream-Gathering Creamery { H> ^JPSf 1 ; 'J. A. Mi' reefers. Some Bacterial Diseases of Plants prevalent in J F. C. Harrison. < >ntario (B. Barlow. A Bacterial Disease of Cauliflower and Allied Plants F. C. Harrison. The Composition of Ontario Feeding Stuffs.. W. P. Gamble. An Experimental Shipment of Fruit to Winni- peg J. B. Reynolds. The Results of Field Experiments with Farm Crops 0. A. Zavitz. Gas- Producing Bacteria and Their Effect on Milk and its Products F. 0. Harrison. Out lines of Nature-Study Wm. Lochhead. Dairv School Bulletin Dairy School Apple Culture H. L. Hutt. Butter Preservatives 1 JJ- ^arccmrt I'ses of Fruits, Vegetables and Honey Fruits Recommended for Ontario Planters. . . Fruit Fx. Stations. Experiments with Nodule-forming Bacteria. . ( £ £' Harrison. 1 \ B. Barlow. ONTARIO DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Live Stock and Farmers' Institutes Branches IBRAk NEW BOTA BULLETIN 149 garl The Swine Industry in Ontario PUBLISHED BY THE ONTARIO DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE TORONTO, ONT., JULY. 1906 Printed hv L. K. CAMERON, Printer to the King's Most Excellent Majesty BULLETIN 149.1 [JULY, 1906. Ontario Department of Agriculture. LIVE STOCK AND FARMERS' INSTITUTES BRANCHES- The Swine Industry in Ontario. Introduction. The information regarding- the condition of the swine industry in the various counties throughout the Province, and the general feeling of the producers and feeders towards the industry, have been obtained from the replies to a number of questions contained in a circular sent to corre- spondents by the Bureau of Industries. The object of procuring and compiling this information is to place everyone interested in a position to obtain a more intimate knowledge regarding the hog production of the Province, with special reference to the present conditions affecting production. Each person should thus be able to decide more intelligently as to what his policy should be with reference to the production and feeding of hogs at the present time. Following is the list of questions referred to : — (i) What breeds, grades or crosses of hogs appear to be most popu- lar in your district? (2) Has ther,e been any general tendency to change from one breed or type of hog to another during the last two or three years? (3) If there has been any change in the kind of hogs fed, please describe the nature of the change. (4) Are grade sires used in your district? (5) What is the general feeling among farmers in your section as to the hog production this year? Do they show a disposition to increase their output and to what extent? (6), About how many breeding sows were kept by the average farmer of your section in 1904? How many in 1905? How many this season? (7) What is the average number of pigs to reach weaning age in spring litters this year? Has the percentage of loss been greater than usual. (8) How will the delivery of hogs between now and September 1st compare with that of 1904 and 1905? (9) What do you consider the average cost of production of bacon hogs fitted for market? (a) Summer feeding; (b) Winter feeding. With reference to question 1, a large number of correspondents replied to it by giving the name of breed or breeds most popular in their district. While, in the particulars regarding each county, credit is given to these breeds it must undoubtedly be read to include not only the pure-breds of the breed mentioned, but also the grades of that breed. It should also be noted that in reply to this question some correspondents answered the question as asked, giving the most popular breed and perhaps the breed found next in favor, while there is no doubt there are other breeds or grades of other breeds found in that locality, small in numbers compared with the breeds mentioned, but given no standing at all in the report. Other reports gave particulars as to all breeds found in the district. Taking the reports as a whole, therefore, while the statements as to the popularity of the breeds will be correct, it is almost certain that the breeds least mentioned will be found to some extent more plentiful throughout the Province than the summary for each county would indicate without the above statement being- borne in mind. Question 4 was answered in a great many cases by either "Yes" or "No." In the former case it was understood to mean that grade sires were used in that section, but not necessarily to any considerable extent; and that grade sires were not used in any large numbers in any district, unless the fact was specially stated in the reply to this question. In reply to question 8, a great many correspondents .made no dis- tinction between 1904 and 1905, and in these cases the comparison was taken to be with 1905. The reports of the counties are arranged so that as far as possible the reports of sections having somewhat similar conditions may be read together. The index on page 36 gives an alphabetical . list of counties, the number of pigs sold or slaughtered in each county during the year ending June 30, 1905, as compiled by the Bureau of Industries, with the page on which the report of each county may be found. Essex. The breeds of hogs as named acre are in order according to their popularity with the farmers in this county : — Berkshire, Chester White, Duroc Jersey, Poland China, Yorkshire and Tamworth. The corn-fed fat hog seems to be the kind generally produced. Little tendency to change is noted unless it be in places where bacon hogs are being tried and persons using them wish to go back to the fat pig which brings them as much money with less care in feeding. Most of the returns would indicate that little attention is given to breeding. In some .sec- tions of the county most of the sires used are grades, and more than seventy-five per cent, of the correspondents report the use of some grade boars. The desire is to increase production to some extent. In 1904 the average number of sows kept was 3.4; in 1905, 3.5, and this year 4. Litters are comparatively small, averaging only 6.6, and losses are but slightly more than usual. Summer deliveries will likely be light, as many farmers have already sold all their pigs weighing over 100 pounds. Feed is scarce in some cases, which will cause delay in finishing pigs. According to the figures given by correspondents the cost of feed- ing hogs is very high. The average cost of producing 100 pounds in summer is $5.25, and in winter $6.33. la 14U * Kent. In this county we find a mixture of a great many breeds, and a number of the correspondents state that while there is a tendency on the part of a few of the breeders to use sires of the bacon breeds, the larger proportion of the producers are using Berkshire, Duroc Jersey and Chester White sires, although we find Yorkshires and Tamworth sows or crosses of them in as large numbers as of the other breeds named. Quotations from a few correspondents will indicate the situation : — "There is a tendency to breed a thick fat hog. The only way to get a bacon hog is to discriminate. The dollar is the best educator I know of. As long as the farmer can get the same price for the thick hog he is likely to raise the hog he can feed the easiest." 'There is a tendency to change from Yorkshire and Tamworth to Berkshire, Chester White and Duroc Jersey. Better feeders and better results from the same amount of feed." "Farmers who have kept two or more sows and had pigs littered at the same time and always fed together find the Yorkshires harder feeders and fully a month later before they are ready for the market, compared with Berkshires and Chesters. The Tamworth-Berkshire cross is considered a good pig and a good feeder. A breeder here who keeps and breeds Berkshires, Yorkshires, and Tamworths, stoutly main- tains that the Yorkshire is by far the poorest hog. He has fed and bred all three sorts for years under the same conditions." "In some quarters, preference is given the long bodied hogs in preference to the short and thick type, but most people are satisfied with fast growing hogs of any type." There are probably as many grade sires kept in this county as in any other, but there is a tendency recently to use a greater number of pure-bred sires. These sires are for the most part of the Berkshire, Chester White and Duroc Jersey strains. In selecting these sires, there is a tendency to choose those that more nearly approach the bacon con- formation. There is a great variation in the statements as to the number of breeding sows kept. There is a tendency on the part of the majority of producers to increase their output, but on account of high prices and the scarcity of hogs, and in some sections a fear that the hog cholera may again break out, the production is considerably below what it other- wise would be. The outlook for 1907, however, is very bright for a largely increased output. The hogs to be marketed before September will be considerably, less in the greater portion of the county, while in a few localities the delivery will be larger than in the past two years. The average number of pigs per litter is 7.22, and the loss among young pigs is not greater than in former years. While the correspondents are unable to give definite figures to substantiate their statements, it is claimed by some that £he Berkshires and Duroc Jerseys can be fattened more cheaply than Tamworths or Yorkshires, even one cent per pound less. The cost of summer pro- duction is estimated at from as low as three cents to as much as six cents per pound, while winter feeding- is placed all the way from four cents to seven cents per pound. The summer average being $4.49 and the winter average $5.41. Elgin. While Yorkshires, Tamworths and Berkshires have been produced largely and in relative numbers in the order named, there is a tendency to cross the first two named with the Berkshires. Considerable Chester White and some Poland China blood has been introduced. While pure bred sires are generally used there is a tendency on the part of a few producers to give little consideration to the breeding or quality of the sire. Many of the farmers are paying close attention to the individu- ality of the stock used for breeding purposes, and are selecting the hogs approaching the bacon type, no matter what the breed may be. The attitude of some of the producers is well shown in the fol- lowing extracts : "Yes, changes are going on all the time, as some think that some other breed is better than what they have, and then they change for another kind." "About three or four years ago there was great talk of bacon hogs and people went to extremes, crossing Yorkshires and Tamworths — a result, poor feeders and slow maturers. " "While there is a tendency to increase the output on the part of many of the producers and the delivery will likely be somewhat larger than last year, a number of the farmers have lost confidence in the stability of the market and are making no effort to increase their output, or even to keep up to the record of the past few years." "There is always a tendency to increase any kind of stock when prices are high, but in hogs we always look for a big drop in prices in the fall. ' ' The average number of breeding sows kept by each farmer is two and a half, somewhat more than in 1905 and less than in 1904. Greater numbers would be kept were it not for the very high prices and the scarcity of supply. The number of pigs per litter to reach weaning age is given as from 5 to 10, with an average of 7J, the smallness of the number being due largely to the greater than usual mortality during the first few weeks. The loss is much greater in the early spring litters. While a few of the correspondents state that the delivery before September 1st will be somewhat larger than in 1904 or 1905, the greater number consider that the output will be considerably less, while a limited number estimate it at about the same. None of the correspondents are able to give a statement of the exact cost of production, and the estimates vary from $3.50 to $5.50 for summer feeding, and from S4.25 to $7.75 for winter feeding-. The average being $4.43 for the summer and $5.34 for winter production. Norfolk. Berkshires and Yorkshires are about equally in favor with farmers here. The Tamworth is also quite popular and there are some Chester Whites. Crossing of the Yorkshire or Tamworth with the Berkshire is largely practised. It is said that there was a time when people would be continually changing from one breed to another, but each farmer is now making his choice and trying to stick to it, much to his own advantage. Several expressions of disappointment are noted from those who after they have raised the best type of bacon hogs have failed to secure any better price than their neighbors who marketed hogs unsuit- able for the bacon trade. Grade sires are still used in considerable numbers. The high price prevailing for hogs is stimulating more activity in breeding with promise of a largely increased output within the next year if no marked decline in prices takes place. Each farmer kept on an average 2.05 sows in 1904; 1.87 in 1905, and has 2.15 this year. Bad luck was experienced with some litters during the cold weather of March, but as a rule litters are somewhat larger than usual, the num- ber at weaning time being 7.8. Marketing of hogs during the summer will be about as last year. Discussing the cost of feeding a correspondent says: "It depends largely upon the feed used. Clover and rape along with plenty of whey and milk help wonderfully, as do mangels, turnips, and sugar beets in the winter. The finishing should always be with a grain ration." The estimated cost of summer feeding is $4.60 per hundred; winter feed- ing. $5-4°- Haldimand. Although Yorkshires are by far the leading breed, there is a strong tendency to introduce more Berkshire blood, in hopes of securing easier feeding, earlier maturing hogs. Tamworths and Chester Whites are bred to some extent. About half the correspondents have noticed the use of grade sires in their localities and a large proportion of the sows are grades. Individual feeders will endeavor to raise more pigs than usual this year, but the movement is not general. Uncertainty regarding future prices for marketable hogs, and the present high prices of grain tend to retard breeding operations. One writer says: "If buyers would pay a more regular price it would be better for all." Another says: "The feeling of farmers is that there will be a shortage of hogs, but they do not care to increase the output on account of grain being high priced' and hogs are liable to be low when ready for market." Farmers are keeping on an average 1.74 sows this year; in 1905 they had 1.6, and in 1904, 1.5, which shows that there is a gradual 6 increase in breeding- stock. The average sow has brought through 8 pigs, which is about the usual number. Production of pigs fit for market before September ist is expected to slightly exceed that of the last two years. Cost of feeding in summer varies from $2.50 to $5 per hundred; in winter from $4 to $6. $4-50 is the average for summer and $5.21 for winter. Welland. The majority of hogs in this county are Berkshires or Yorkshires and crosses of the two. Some use Tamworths and a few farmers have Chester Whites. In districts from which hogs are shipped to the pack- ing houses care is taken to produce a good type, and the Yorkshire is growing in favor. Where breeders are catering to the local markets only they raise shorter hogs and often sell them when they weigh from 100 to 140 pounds. But few grade sires are used. There is very little tendency to increase production. Some farmers seem inclined to abandon hog raising because of the uncertainty of pro- fits. The number of breeding sows to the farm is gradually decreas- ing, being 1.73 in 1904; 1.47 in 1905, and 1.42 in 1906. Litters are a little smaller than usual, the average number weaned this season is 7.6. Because of the smaller number of breeding sows, reduced litters and the number of hogs sold to supply the local markets at five or six months of age the output this summer will show a decrease. Large quantities of refuse are used for feeding hogs, and pasturing in orchards is extensively practised, so the cost of feeding is lower than in some other counties. The average of estimates for summer feeding is $4.38 per hundred and $5.15 for winter. One correspondent says: '/The bacon hog can be produced at a smaller cost than a great many imagine if they have good pasture (clover and peas) in summer and roots and other green food in winter. Lincoln. The leading breeds in this county are Yorkshires, Berkshires, Chester Whites, and Tamworths. For crossing with the Yorkshire, the Berkshire and Chester White are largely used. When the Chester Whites are used the desire is to get white pigs without any particular consideration for bacon quality. The general tendency is to improve the breeding of the pigs to make them better able to meet the require- ments of pork packers. Quite a number of grade sires are still being used throughout the county. Where general farming is practised there will be some increase in the output, but a great many keep just sufficient hogs to eat the refuse from their fruit farms, and with these the numbers do not vary much from year to year. The average number of sows kept in 1904 and 1905 is 1.25 and in 1906, 1.5. The litters were very satisfactory, averaging 8.5 pigs each at weaning age, with losses a little less than usual. There will be about the regular number of hogs for delivery between now and September. One farmer claims his hogs cost him very little as he feeds them nothing marketable except some milk. Others who buy grain find it hard to make a profit. The average cost for summer is $4.16 and for winter $5.05 per hundred pounds. Wentworth. Yorkshires are the most popular while Berkshires are looked upon with favor by some ; the crosses of these breeds are fed extensively. There are also a few Tamworths. There appears to be slight tendency to any change ; such as there is seems to be in favor of the Berkshire, the reason given being that it is thought to be an easier feeder. Practi- cally no grade sires are used. There seems to be a disposition to slightly increase the production. One correspondent says : 'The disposition is to increase the output, but owing to the fact that brood sows are scarce, very little change will take place before the latter part of the year." The average farmer keeps about two sows, and there appears to be very little difference between 1904, 1905 and 1906. Compared with 1904, there was a slight decrease in 1905 and a slight increase in 1906. The size of the average litter is 7.45. Most of the correspondents believe that the loss in litters will not be more than is usually the case, while others consider that there is a greater loss. One correspondent states that while the loss has not been greater than usual, the litters are smaller. The almost general opinion is that the delivery of hogs between now and the 1st of Sep- tember will be lighter than in 1904 and 1905, some estimates placing the shrinkage at 30 per cent.. One correspondent states that several of the largest growers in his section have gone out of the business to stay. Another correspondent states : "Coarse grains show a tendency to be pretty high, deliveries will likely be heavy for a few months and consequently make supplies scarcer later on. The estimates as to the cost of feeding vary from 3^ to 6 cents in summer, and from 5 to 8 cents in winter ; the average is, summer feeding, 4^ and winter feeding 5^. Several feeders state the cost of feeding is no more in winter than in summer. Their estimate of cost in each case is 5 cents. Lambton. The Yorkshire is the leading breed of hogs in this county and con- tinues to grow in popularity. Berkshires are quite common and are liked for crossing with Yorkshires ; Tamworths are usually considered harder to feed than the other breeds, so their number is not increasing. The general tendency is to produce bacon hogs of a good packer's type. About half the correspondents make note of grade sires being used in their section. Gradual improvement, however, is being made in this respect. Breeding sows last year numbered 1.22 per farm; in 1904, 1.47, and this year 1.35 on an average. Losses in litters have been consider- ably larger than usual. At weaning time the average number of pigs was 7.9. This would indicate less pigs to be marketed during the summer than in 1904, and probably about the same as last year. The general tendency is to breed more sows, so that a gradual increase in production may be looked for. Estimates as to the cost of feeding vary from $4 to $5.50 for sum- mer, and from $4 to $7 for winter feeding. In winter, feeding is usu- ally considered to cost about $1 a hundred more than in summer. The average cost is: summer, $4.63; winter, $5.64. Middlesex. The breeds mostly used for breeding purposes, named in order of their popularity, are : Yorkshires, Berkshires, Tamworths and Chester Whites. Tamworths and Chester Whites appear to be decreasing, and their places are being taken by Berkshires and Yorkshires. Very few grade boars are referred to. Many pure-bred sows are used for cross- ing with males of other breeds, the claim being made that the cross- bred is an easier feeder than the pure-bred. The views generally expressed by correspondents regarding the present condition of the hog industry are very well summed up by one writer, who says: "The farmers are all trying to get into hogs as fast as possible. A great many sold their sows eighteen months ago and are now sorry they did not keep them." The breeding sows now on hand are about the same as last year and less than in 1904, the number for this year being 1.6. The average size of litters at weaning is 8.3 pigs, and there have been about the usual losses in young ones. Deliveries between now and September are going to be rather lighter than those usually made during the summer, but an improve- ment is to be looked for during the autumn. Should the good prices be maintained this county is likely to largely increase its production of hogs during the next year. The figures given as the cost of producing hogs appear to be indi- vidual opinions rather than the results of actual experiments. With summer feeding the cost of one hundred pounds varies from $3 to $6» and with winter feeding from $4 to $9. The average of the figures given by all the correspondents are: summer feeding, $4.57; winter feeding, $5.54, per hundred pounds. Oxford. The returns show that farmers are far from having one opinion as to the best breed of hogs. A few extracts will show how different some men's views are: "The tendency has been almost universal to eliminate all breeds except the Yorkshire. The type sought after is the bacon type as approved by the packers." "A few years ago Yorkshires were the proper thing, but the bulk of farmers think they have found out 9 that the Yorkshires are no better than some other breeds." 'The Berk- shires are taking- the place of the Yorkshires and Tamworths. " "I can get the best results from a Chester \Yhite sow crossed with a Berkshire boar." "Some of the neighbors tried Poland Chinas, but they did not give satisfaction." "In some cases a change has been made from the Yorkshires and Tamworths to Chester Whites and Berkshires, but in the majority of cases they have in a short time changed back. Farmers made the change from a false idea of economy, believing that Chester Whites and Berkshires could be made to weigh 200 pounds with less feed. Small litters and an excess of fat at an early age has more than counterbalanced this." The general opinion is strongly in favor of the Yorkshire. The Berkshire appears to be increas- ing at the expense of the Tamworths and the American breeds. A York- shire-Berkshire crosses growing more popular, but as a rule farmers are careful of the type, having a desire to produce good bacon hogs. Only two-fifths of the correspondents report the use of some grade sires in the districts. One says, "Farmers see that it does not pay to breed or feed hogs from scrubby dams bred to grade sires as they used to do." Quite a strong tendency to increase production is noted. A writer says that farmers will do all in their power to supply the shortage caused by shutting out American hogs. Another believes that if the packers continue to make it worth the farmer's while, by sufficient re- muneration, Ontario can and will produce the right article, and in suf- ficient quantity to keep the packing houses supplied continuously. Brood sows now average 2.5 to each farm, whereas in 1905 there were 2.1, and in 1904, 2.2. sows each. Litters have been very good, averaging 8.1 pigs, and losses have been about normal. Hogs marketed between now and September 1st will be less than for the last two years; an increase may be looked for during the autumn, and if prices keep up there should be heavy increases in production during the next year. Speaking of the cost of feeding hogs, one correspondent makes a frank admission. He says : "This is the average farmer's failing. I do not know. ' ' The average of what the cost is thought to be is : Per hundred pounds, $4.58 in summer, $5.28 in winter. Those who have not kept account of the cost should take particular notice of the following extract from one farmer's report: "We have as yet made no experiments to ascertain difference in winter and summer production. For the entire year of 1903 the cost of producing a pound cf pork was 3.63 cents; for 1904, 3.49 cents." It will be noticed that these figures are much lower than what is usually thought to be the cost of production. Brant. The most popular breeds of swine are the Yorkshire, Berkshire and Tamworth. The Yorkshire is the leading breed, while the Berk- shire is popular in some sections for crossing with the other breeds. It 10 is generally claimed for such crosses that they have easier feeding qualities and are ready for market at an earlier age than the pure-bred pigs, although no facts are given to substantiate the claims. Very few farmers patronize grade sires and the majority of sows are well bred. There is a strong tendency to increase the production of hogs, as one correspondent says : "It is the most profitable part of mixed farming to-day, therefore on the increase." One writer thinks the increase will amount to fully 25 per cent. From the facts given, however, it appears impossible that any such large increase as this can be made. Old sows are expensive, and are no more plentiful than in 1904, there being an average of 2.2 sows per farm for each of the years; this is .4 more than in 1905. Litters are only averaging 7.6 pigs each, which is less than usual. The high prices being paid by the packers are tempting some to market their young sows. Under these conditions it seems improb- able there can be much increase in the supply of hogs for some time. Figures given for the cost of feeding are generally a little lower in this county than from other parts of the Province. The average cost of summer feeding is estimated to be $4.39, and winter feeding $5.21, for each hundred pounds. Wellington. By far the* most popular breed in this county is the Yorkshire. The next is the Berkshire, while in quite a few sections there are a few Tamworths. The Yorkshire-Berkshire cross is very popular, while in a few sections the Yorkshire-Tamworth cross is used. In a large propor- tion of the sections there is no inclination to change from the type of hog grown. In most of the sections where a change is noted, however, there is a tendency to go more to Yorkshires. In two or three sections there is an inclination to go to a slightly shorter and fatter hog. One correspondent reports the extreme type of bacon hog is going out. Another one says : "Farmers are not paying much attention to type as they all go at the same price." Another report states: "There is a decided inclination to grow shorter and thicker pigs." Another says: "There is a slight tendency to change to the shorter, fatter breeds, as buyers do not discriminate." Pure-bred sires are used almost entirely. In a small number of sections grade sires are used to a very limited extent. There appears to be a slight tendency to increase in a number of sections ; the greatest number of districts, however, report that there is no disposition to in- crease the output. One correspondent reports: "Farmers seem well satisfied with the hog business ; everyone seems anxious to increase, but no special attempt to jump into larger herds of swine." Another correspondent reports: "There is no disposition to increase the output, as we consider the market subject to sudden changes." Another report says : "There is a general feeling to take advantage of the present good prices, but no excitement to go into the business very strongly for fear prices drop. The price is so uncertain that they are not buying sows 11 to breed, but are caring- well for the ones they have." Another report says: "No large increase in numbers, but a tendency to better feeding and to make the finished product heavier." Still another report: "A great many would increase if they thought present prices would con- tinue, but some were disappointed in that respect in the past." In 1906 the number of sows has slightly increased over the number for 1905, but is less than the number for 1904. The average litter is 7.5. Taking the county as a whole there appears to be a greater per- centage of loss in young pigs than is usually the case. It is expected that the shipments before September 1st will be lighter than in 1905. One correspondent states : "The delivery will be light the first months and heavier for September. " Another correspondent states: "So far as this district is concerned the hogs are being marketed in a very im- mature state, probably on account of very high prices, or perhaps short- age of feed." The price for summer feeding ranges from 3^ to 6 cents per lb., and for winter from 4J to *]\ cents per lb. The average for summer feeding is $4.70 per cwt. , and for winter feeding $5.45 per cwt. Waterloo. Public opinion is strongly in favor of Yorkshires as the most de- sirable breed. Berkshires appear to be about 50 per cent. less, numer- ous and Tamworths 75 per cent. less. The number of Tamworths is inclined to decrease, while Berkshires are being used more largely for crossing with the Yorkshires. A few reports mention some farmers who are inclined to raise a fatter hog, but the majority have faith in the bacon type. There is room for considerable improvement in many of the sires used ; reference is made to the use of grade sires in nearly half of the reports. There is strong disposition to increase the number of hogs to as many as the farmers have feed for. Estimates of the increase to be looked for go as high as 60 per cent. It is not likely the increase will have much effect on the market for some time, as there is not suf- ficient breeding stock to meet the demands upon it. Sows and young pigs are selling at high prices. The average for the last three years of sows kept is: 1904, 2.3; 1905, 2.3; 1906, 2.6 per farm. Litters have not been doing so well as usual unless where com- fortable quarters were used for the pigs. The number of pigs weaned from each litter is 7.8. There will likely be a normal number of hogs marketed during the summer, and increases may be looked for later in the season. The cost of summer feeding is averaged at $4.69 per hundred, and winter feeding, $5.28. Estimates vary from $3.24 to $6.00 in summer, and $4.00 to $7.00 in winter. 12 Perth. The breed used most extensively is the Yorkshire, Berkshire next, and then Tamworth. There are a few Chester Whites and a very few Suffolks. There seems to be a tendency to use more Berkshires, either as a cross or pure-bred, and a slight tendency towards Chester Whites. Tamworths do not seem to be so popular as they were, although they are used to quite an extent in crossing. The most popular cross is between the Berkshires and Yorkshires. One correspondent states : "There is a slight tendency with some to cross the Yorkshire with the bacon type of Berkshire, the object being to get a hog of a fair bacon type which will feed more easily." Another correspondent states : "The weight was 160 to 180 pounds; the tendency now is to get them over 200, to 250 pounds." Another report is: "Farmers are not so particular about marketing the typical bacon hog, as they get just as good prices for the thick fat." Another correspondent states: "There is a tendency to change from the long, straight, deep-sided hog to what is known as the more easily fatted hog." Still another correspon- dent says: "Farmers now are breeding the bacon hog for the demand of the packers, and they seem to be well satisfied." In almost all sections pure-bred sires are used. In some sections, however, grade sires are used, but to a very limited extent. In some localities there appears to be a tendency to increase the output, but in most sections considerable caution appears to be used and the tendency to increase is very slight. One correspondent says : "Farmers seem rather dubious about increasing the output very much ; they feel that once the output is sufficiently large to satisfy all packing houses, the price will certainly go down. They are not going- into it in a whole- sale way as some farmers did a few years ago." There is an increase in the number of sows kept this year over the number in 1905, but they are still considerably less than in 1904. The average litter is 7.9. The loss will not run any greater than usual. The delivery up to the 1st of September will be less than 1905, Some districts report an increase, but taking the county as a whole, the ship- ments will be less. The average of the estimates of cost for summer feeding is about $4.54 per cwt. , and for winter feeding about $5.09. The estimates for summer feeding range from 2\ to 6 cents per lb., and for winter feed- ing from 3^ to 8 cents. Huron. The question as to the popularity of the different breeds of hogs is very well answered by a correspondent who says: "The Yorkshire is decidedly the leading breed at present ; crosses of the Yorkshire and Berkshire, and Yorkshire and Tamworth are, however, valued by some. Pure-bred hogs of the above breeds and crosses have superseded the old mongrel breeds so prevalent in days of yore. The change of late 13 years has been from hogs of which the Poland China may be considered the type (too much fat and too little lean meat) to the Yorkshire suitable for the English trade." The Berkshire is being used rather more for crossing than formerly, and the Tamworth less. One correspondent's explanation of this is : "The sole reason of the change is the refusal on the part of drovers to pay according to quality ; most people think short, thick hogs can be grown more cheaply than bacon hogs." Very lew grade sires are used, and in many cases sows are also pure-bred, although they may not be registered. Owing to the high price of grain many people do not consider the hog business very profitable at the present time and are not inclined to increase their production. Others, who have the grain, are feeding as many as possible. Big increases may be looked for within the next year if hogs continue to sell at good prices. An average of about 1.6 sows have been kept on each farm during the last three years. Litters average 7.3 pigs, with losses slightly greater than usual. Some reasons given for the increased losses are poor pens, pens with cement floors, and the feeding of too much barley. There will likely be quite a falling- off in the number of hogs to be marketed before September 1st. The average cost of summer feeding is $4.75, and winter feeding $5.18. Those who quote the most economical gains grow their pigs on clover pasture in summer and roots in winter. The quantity of grain is increased towards the finishing period. There is a hope to soon be able to grow peas again for hog food. Bruce. The breeding of the hogs appears to be confined largely to the Yorkshires and their crosses with the Berkshires and Tarn worths. It is said that at shipping stations most of the hogs show strongly their Yorkshire blood and are of good bacon type. There is not much dis- position to breed anything but hogs of the desirable type for the export trade. The percentage of sires not pure-bred is very small. While farmers consider present prices all that could be desired, yet there is no great rush to go into hog raising. Still the general feeling is hopeful, young pigs and brood sows are selling at high prices, but as one correspondent states: "It takes considerable time to increase your output after you take the notion." Many farmers appear to look on hog raising with suspicion, and are ready to quit as soon as there is a drop in the price. The steadiness of the market will largely deter- mine the amount of increase in production during the next year. There seems to have been no increase during the last three years in the number of sows kept. They average about 1.6 sows to each farm. At weaning time the average is 7.6 pigs to the litter. Losses of young pigs have been large. Returns indicate a smaller number of hogs to be marketed this summer than during the same season in 1905 and 1904. 14 The estimates of cost of producing- bacon hogs in summer average $4.66, in winter $5.30, per hundred pounds. The result of an experiment conducted by a correspondent may be of interest. He says: "I had eleven pigs last year and kept an accurate account of what they cost me. I fed them three bags of shorts and 47 bags of mixed grain (barley, oats and peas, ground). I consider the mixture worth $1 per bag, or $50 for the grain. To this add $1 for service of hog and $5 for feed of mother, and the total cost is $56. I sold at six cents, and received $132.00. There is no allowance made here for skim milk or labor, as I could not make anything else out of the milk and the labor did not amount to much, the pigs being a summer batch. The pigs were six months and a week old, so I had a profit of $76." Grey. Returns would indicate that about 50 per cent, of the hogs are of Yorkshire breeding, 25 per cent. Berkshire, 20 per cent. Tamworth, and 5 per cent, other breeding, mostly Chester Whites. The bacon type is generally kept in view in breeding, and improvement is gradually being made. In some cases where extreme length was formerly sought after farmers are getting a shorter pig. A few farmers have become careless, because drovers will not pay them a premium on selects. Boars are usually registered. Farmers, as a rule, will be quite satisfied if they can keep up with the production of hogs of former years. For several years past a great many have been keeping as many pigs as they can handle. Where there is a tendency to increase the output, the fear of overproduction and consequent low prices induces caution. Many improvements are being made in buildings for hogs, and larger numbers will in future be fed during the winter. Nearly every farmer keeps a brood sow and raises his own pigs. One correspondent says : "There is more money in the business when a farmer raises his own pigs and grows his own feed." For each farm the number of brood sows kept has averaged about 1^ for each of the last three years. Considerable increase in losses of young pigs occurred during the last season, still the litters at wean- ing time have been a very good size, numbering about eight pigs each. Summer deliveries will probably be slightly below the last two years, the reason being that high prices have tempted feeders to sell light weight hogs during the spring. In making a reply to the question regarding the cost of producing: bacon hogs, one writer says : "I have to say that I really do not know. I do not think there is one in this locality who follows any systematic course of weighing or measuring the leed. We simply go it blind." The various estimates given average $4.70 for summer feeding, and $5.24 for winter feeding. 15 SlMCOE. The most popular breed in this county is the Yorkshire. Berkshires and Tamworths are also found in quite large numbers; there are also a few Chester Whites. Crosses of these different breeds will be found in almost all sections. Some sections show ah inclination to produce a slightly thicker pig than before, while in other sections they are work- ing in the opposite direction. Taking the county as a whole there appears to be no tendency to change from the type of hogs now being produced. In a great many sections grade sires are used. There appears to be quite a general belief that the tendency is to increase the production, some estimates going as high as 50 per cent. The following are quota- tions from different correspondents: "Farmers have been wild on hogs, and most of them have been stocking to a larger extent; some instead of keeping one brood sow are increasing to two, and in some cases more than two." "Farmers are a little conservative about increasing their bacon stock. While they are increasing their output, they are not rushing into it as they formerly did. They recognize that they can only grow a certain number of hogs at a profit." "Brood sows arc scarce, farmers having sold so many in 1904, and they do not seem disposed to keep any sows that will bring them $14 or $15 from the drover, and run the risk of low prices in the near future." 'The low prices of 1904 induced a great many to part with their brood sows; and last winter they were all anxious to replace them, and brood sows have been going at fabulous prices." "The general feeling is that there is no money in feeding hogs when the price is under $6 a hundred." There was considerable decrease in the number of breeding sows in 1905,, and in 1906 there was a good increase over 1905, but still considerably below the number in 1904. The size of the average litter is 7.22. There does not seem to be anything out of the ordinary in the percentage of loss of young pigs. It will probably be found, taking the county as a whole, that the deliv- ery before September 1st will be a little better than in 1905, but con- siderably lighter delivery than in 1904. In some sections, however, the delivery will probably be lighter than in 1905. One correspondent states : "I have been a shipper of hogs for some time. In 1905 it was easier to get a double-deck than I can now get a single-deck ; in fact, it is neces- sary now at times to ship half a carload." About 30 per cent, of the correspondents do not state the cost of feeding. In nearly every case where the cost is given they state it is simply an estimate ; that no accurate figures are given. The cost of summer feeding varies from 3! cents to 5^ cents ; winter feeding from 4^ to 6| cents. The average of the estimates for summer feeding is $4-55 per cwt., and for winter feeding $5.44 per cwt. One correspondent states : "I would sooner not raise any hogs except for my own use, unless I was pretty sure of getting $5.50 per hundred for summer fed hogs, and $6.00 per hundred 16 for winter fed hogs, at the price of coarse-grains for the last two years. Hired help is too scarce and wages too high to afford to raise many roots." DUFFERIN. A correspondent says: "There has been some experimenting with crossing, but all seem to lead to pure-bred Yorkshires as the most satis- factory hog." This view is strengthened by the other reports received; everyone mentions the Yorkshire, and 40 per cent, refer to the Tamworths and Berkshires, while 6 per cent, make note of Poland Chinas. There are some who advocate the use of the Berkshire for crossing purposes. A considerable number of grade sires are still being used, but farmers appear to be alive to the necessity of care in breeding. Speaking of the prospects of production a correspondent writes : It is likely to keep about stationary until the trade gets into better shape; that is, when fewer middlemen are making a living out of the producers." Another says, "Quite a number have gone out of business this year on account of scarcity of feed." Considering the reports cov- vering the whole county, it would appear that the marketable hogs before September 1st will be somewhat less than in 1904 and a little more than in 1905. The number of sows kept varies from two on each farm this year to a little less than two last year and rather more than two in 1904. Eight has been the average number in the litters, and losses have been greater than usual. The average estimate for feeding gives the cost as about 50 cents per hundred pounds greater in winter than in summer. The figures are : summer, $4.56, and winter $5.09. Cheaper labor and the feeding of roots are mentioned as being helps toward keeping down the cost of winter feeding. Halton. The pigs here appear to be nearly all of the Yorkshire or Berkshire breeds and their crosses and grades. In a few cases the Tamworths are raised. One correspondent states that the Yorkshires represent about 70 per cent, of all the pigs. Speaking of the kind of hogs being fed one writer says : "The only change has been an improvement with the object of getting a better type of bacon hogs." Another says: "Not much change, except a few Berkshire and Yorkshire crosses, they fatten easier." Less than 25 per cent, of the correspondents make reference to any grade sires in their locality. The general feeling is that hogs are profitable, as high as fifty dollars has been paid for a brood sow this year. On an average 2 \ sows are kept on each farm. This is about the same as in 1904, and 20 per cent, better than 1905. The litters run about 8.2 pigs each, with losses somewhat less than usual, due to the mild winter, making it possible for the sows to get sufficient exercise. Under ordinary conditions the number of pigs marketed during the summer should be about the same as in 1904, and a little less than in 17 1905, but there is a tendency to rush feeding faster than usual to avoid the drop in price that often occurs the latter part of September. This may mean that deliveries will be quite heavy between August 15th and September 15th. Regarding the cost of production, one correspondent says: "Not many farmers take the trouble to figure out the cost accurately, but all are agreed there is no profit when the price drops below five cents per pound." The sum of the opinions expressed gives $4.54 as the sum- mer cost, and $5.44 in winter, for each one hundred pounds. The esti- mates go as low as $3.50 in summer and up to $7 in winter. Peel. One correspondent says: "Some think the Yorkshires are slow to mature and haVd to fatten, and are changing to the Berkshire. The cross between the Berkshire and Yorkshire is being tried lately ; they mature quicker and will sell at six or seven months, whereas the York- shire takes seven or eight months, and you get the same price for the cross as you do for the pure-bred." Although a few Tamworths are kept the Yorkshires are largely in the majority, with Berkshires a fair second. A number of grade sires are in service, and one person remarks of his locality, that although "No grade sires are used some poor speci- mens of pure-breds are." There is considerable anxiety about the price? packers will give later on. Some are going to increase their breeding herds and others would like to could they be assured of the continua- tion of the present profitable prices. Mention is made of hogs being sent to Toronto market weighing 100 pounds or less when dressed. There is some improvement evident in the number of sows kept; in 1904 the average was about 2; 1905, a little less than 2, and in 1906 over 2^ sows per farm. The pigs in each litter average about j%. Most reports show losses very much the same as last year. In some cases where there are many young sows the losses have been heavier. Deliveries between now and September 1st will be less than usual. The average cost of summer feeding is $4.74, and $5.43 the cost of winter feeding. Emphasis is laid upon the cost of grain and labor as factors influencing the cost of production. York. The claim that the Berkshires are easier feeders than other breeds shows its effects in some sections, and this breed is quite commonly used. One writer says: "Most farmers have procured Berkshire sows which are easily kept, good breeders, quiet and gentle with their litters, and while crossed with Tamworths still produce a good bacon pig-" This does not apply to the whole county, for the Yorkshire has a strong hold and seems to be more numerous than all other breeds together. A few Chester Whites and Tamworths are found in some localities. The majority of farmers are anxious to raise pigs suitable for the bacon 2—149 18 trade, and breeding- operations are usually carried on with this object in view. In some places quite a number of grade sires are used, while in others there are very few or none. There will be no general increase in production, as the breeding sows are not available. They are scarce and very high in price, so there will be little improvement until the young sows can be made use of. A few more breeding sows are being kept now than during the two years just past. In 1906 the average will be about z\ sows per farm. Some persons who have young sows and damp quarters report large losses among early spring litters, but with older sows and comfortable pens there has been about the usual mortality. Litters average J. 2 pigs each. Some increase in deliveries is looked for after September, but until then there will probably be some decrease in the number. Many hogs that would dress 100 pounds have already been sold on the Toronto market. Regarding cost of feeding, one farmer says: "This is a question worthy of every farmer's attention, but is one grossly neglected. I believe few farmers keep a minute record of expenditure in connection with their hogs." Variations in estimates of cost are surprising, and show a need of keeping more careful accounts. Some are very high and others correspondingly low. The average for summer feeding per hundred pounds is $4.64, and for winter feeding $5.31. Quite a number of people claim they can feed hogs just as cheaply in winter as in sum- mer by using roots and keeping the pigs in warm pens. Peterborough. The Tamworths and Yorkshires are both very popular in this county. Quite a number of the farmers are favorable to the Berkshires, and a few to Chester Whites. Any tendency to change is in favor of the Yorkshires and Tamworths, probably slightly in favor of the Yorkshires. Grade sires are used in about 50 per cent, of the sections to a limited extent. There seems to be a tendency to increase the production taking the county as a whole, although in a large percentage of the districts there is likely to be little or no change. The number of sows decreased slightly in 1905, and has increased again in 1906 to more than in 1904. The size of the average litter is 7.93. The percentage of loss is about normal. The delivery before September 1st will probably be lighter than in 1905, although a small number of sections report a probability of a few more. The average of the estimates for summer feeding is $4.68 per cwt., and for winter feeding S5.55. The range of. the estimates for summer feeding is from 3 to 7 cents per lb., and for winter feeding from 4^ to 10 cents per lb. Victoria. In point of numbers the Yorkshire and Yorkshire grades take the lead. Tamworths and Berkshires are about equal, and a few Chester 2a 149 19 Whites are found in different localities. Any change is in favor of Yorkshires first, then the Berkshires, but in most sections there is no disposition to make any change. The Berkshire-Yorkshire is the most popular cross mentioned. In a very small proportion of districts grade sires are used to a limited extent. About fifty per cent, of the reports state there is a tendency to increase the production, and brood sows are selling at high prices. Compared with 1904, 1905 showed a slight decrease in the number of brood sows kept, while 1906 shows an increase. The average number of pigs in each litter to reach weaning age is 7.7. The percentage of loss is about the same as usual. It is very probable that there will be lighter deliveries before September 1st than in 190J, and 1905. The cost of summer feeding varies from $3 to $5.50 per cwt., and winter feeding from $4 to $6 per cwt. The average for summer feeding is $4.68 per cwt., and for winter feeding $5.28 per cwt. Ontario. The breed most commonly spoken of in returns from this county is the Yorkshire. The Berkshire is also strongly advocated by some and the Tamworth has a few supporters. There is a desire to grade up the ordinary herd by using pure-bred sires, and in cases where pure-bred Yorkshires or Berkshires are kept, crossing is often resorted to. There is room for considerable improvement in many of the sires used, for in nearly every locality there are some grades. Breeders are exhibiting a great deal of caution regarding any increase of production. A correspondent says : "I do not think that farmers are likely to go into hog raising much more strongly than at present, as it is much better to feed a moderate number at a good profit than to have more to be fed at a loss. The packers cannot resist the tempta- tion to lower prices when they get a fair supply. Besides, other branches of farming are profitable; cattle are a fair price; sheep are high, and horses are extremely high." There has been little change in the number of brood sows during the last three years. The average farm keeps about two sows each. Spring litters came strong and few losses have occurred. The average size of the litters is 7.4. The indications are that deliveries will be light during the summer with some improvement during the autumn. Grain is expensive, so feeders are not inclined to use a great deal of it. The average cost of producing hogs in summer is $4.56, and in winter $5.09 per hundred pounds. In discussing- the cost of produc- tion one correspondent says: "It varies from time to time according; to the price of grain, cost of labor, weather conditions, the breeding; of the pigs, and the regularity or irregularity of attendance. Some- time's the farmer is rushed with work, and will neglect the hogs for a few days, and that will set them back." 20 Durham. The popular breeds are the Yorkshires, Berkshires and Tamworths, and stand in favor in order as named. Occasionally a Chester White is found and mention is made of Duroc Jerseys. The Tamworth appears to be growing- in favor, being- used largely for crossing with both Yorkshires and Berkshires. Appreciating the value of the bacon trade, the farmers generally are giving careful attention to studying; the needs of the trade with a view to breeding and feeding the right class of hogs. The care taken in breeding is strongly emphasized by the remarks made concerning the sires used. Only one out of every eight correspondents is aware of any grade sires being used in his locality. There does not appear to be any strong desire to increase the out- put. One writer says : "I do not think there will be any great increase; when we raise more hogs we get less money. If we could be sure of $6 per hundred weight at all times we would supply the market with all the hogs wanted." The scarcity of help and the high price of grains are also affecting production. The average number of sows kept on each farm in 1904 was 2.2; in 1905, 2.4, and in 1906, 2.1. The decrease in the number of sows, a decrease in the size of litters (7.5 pigs each), and an increased loss among young pigs, will cause a rather large shrinkage in the number of hogs to be marketed during the summer. According to- figures received, it costs $4.52 to produce one hundred pounds in summer and $5.23 with winter feeding. Northumberland. The Yorkshire appears to be the leading breed, with both Tam- worths and Berkshires following close up. One writer says : 'There has been a slight tendency to go back to the Berkshire, which used to to be the prevailing breed, but it has not been general as yet." There is a great deal of crossing done with these breeds. Chester Whites are occasionally used. In some localities they have not yet entirely discarded the grade sires, but improvement is being made in these as well as in the grade sows by grading up. Owing to a better price having been paid during the past year, there is a disposition on the part of farmers to produce more swine, but there is a shortage of breeding sows which will curtail the output for some time. Still there is a slight increase in the number of sows. The figures given average 2.3 per farmer for 1906; 1.9 for 1905, and 2.1 for 1904. Spring litters run about 7.3 pigs, with losses considerably greater than usual. A number of sows have lost their whole litters. Supplies available for market before September 1st will probably be a little less than during the same period of 1905 and considerably short of 1904. The cost of growing hogs appears to be less than in most parts of Ontario; $4.20 is the average cost in summer, and $5.14 in winter for one hundred pounds. 21 Prince Edward. The Berkshires and Yorkshires are the breeds most favored. There ar.e a number of Chester Whites in. the county and a few Tamworths. The Berkshire- Yorkshire cross is well thought of. The correspondents in some sections state there is a desire to follow more closely the bacon type. In some sections correspondents report a tendency to go more into Berkshires and Berkshire crosses. In a large proportion of the sections of the county grade sires are used to a limited extent. In only one case was it suggested that there was a tendency to decrease the production. About one-half of the correspondents are of the opinion there will be no change in their district, owing to a feeling that an increase would Dring down the price to an unprofitable basis. In about the same number of sections there is a tendency to increase the production, probably 20 per cent. In some sections farmers are unable to procure young pigs for feeding. The average litter is 7.7. There seems to be an almost general belief that the percentage of loss is greater than usual. One corre- spondent states : "Losses have been very heavy this year up to this date; from 25 per cent, to 30 per cent, of sows are losing their whole litters." There was a slight decrease in the number of breeding sows in 1905 ; and in 1906 a slight increase over 1904. In two or three sections there may be an increase in the delivery of hogs as compared with 1904 and 1905, while in others the output will be practically the same. It will probably be found, however, that, taking the county as a whole, the delivery of hogs will be lighter than during either of the two previous years. There is a great variation in the estimates as to the cost of feed- ing, ranging from 3J to 6 cents per pound for summer feeding, and from 4 to 7 cents per pound for winter feeding. The average for summer feeding is 4J cents per pound, and for winter feeding 5^ cents per pound. Hastings. The Yorkshires seem to be the favorite breed in this locality, with quite a large number of Berkshires, a fair number of Tamworths and a few Chester Whites ; also a small number of Duroc Jerseys. There seems to be an inclination to get fewer of the Tamworths, and go still more extensively into the Yorkshires and Berkshires, with one report stating that there is an inclination to go into Chester Whites, and another report stating that the tendency is to raise a fatter type of hog. In a large num- ber of the sections no tendency to change is reported. One correspondent reports : "Hogs of the bacon type were fed formerly, but farmers are favoring the quicker fattened breeds now." In a greater proportion of the sections grade sires are used to a lim- ited extent. In several of the sections they appear to be used almost entirely. In most localities there is a tendency to increase the output, although in quite a large number of sections there is no great likelihood of a change. One report states : "All seem anxious to be in the business this year, and young pigs are exceptionally high, although they seem to be quite plentiful." Another correspondent states: "Farmers generallv 22 are satisfied with the price received during- the past four months, and if they had reasonable assurance of the continuance of the same, would increase the output considerably." Another report states: "Every farmer is anxious to increase, but sows are not generally doing well this spring. The litters are below the average, and a great many are losing the offspring. Pigs are sold at $7 per pair." The number of sows in 1905 shows a slight increase over 1904, and T906 an increase over the previous year. The average litter is reported to be 7.9. The percentage of loss is about the same as usual. Some sec- tions report the probability of heavier deliveries before the first of Septem- ber. It is likely, taking the county as a whole, that it will not be any larger than 1905. The average cost reported for summer feeding is $4.11 per cwt. , and $5.04 per cwt. for winter feeding. The cost for summer feeding varies from z\ cents per lb. to 5 cents per lb., and for whiter feeding from 3^ to 7 cents per lb. One correspondent states regarding cost of feed- ing : (Summer), "If properly handled, a bacon hog can be produced ready 'for market at 4 cents per lb." (Winter), "If kept warm and liber- ally supplied with sugar beets and clover (cut), at 5 cents per lb." Another correspondent reports : "From carefully conducted experiments during my fourteen years experience, I believe the normal cost to be $4.50 per cwt., live weight, perhaps a shade less for summer feeding." Lennox and Addington. In popularity the breeds in this country come in the following order : Yorkshires, Berkshires, Tamworths, and Chester Whites, the latter not being found in large numbers. Crosses of these breeds will be found through all sections. There is an inclination to go more into York- shires in most of the districts in which it is suggested there is a tendency to change, although in some of the districts there is a desire to add a Berkshire cross. In a large percentage of the sections grade sires are used ; in some districts quite extensively. There is a slight disposition to increase the output, but not very extensively. There seems to be a desire to increase the output more by buying young pigs than by breeding. There is practically no difference between the number of breeding sows kept in 1904, 1905 and 1906, except that there was a slight decrease in I 9°5- The average litter is j.y. The loss appeared to be about normal, a few sections reporting a greater loss, and several sections less loss. A large proportion of the districts report that the delivery before the 1st of September will be less than 1905, and very much less than 1904. In some sections the delivery will probably be about the same, and in some there will probably be a slight increase, but covering the whole country there will probably be fewer hogs shipped before the 1st of Sep- tember than in 1905. The estimates of cost of summer feeding range from 31 to 7 cents per lb., the average being $4.53 per cwt. The esti- mates for winter feeding range from 4 to 7 cents per lb., the average being $5.32 per cwt. 23 Frontenac. The principal breed in this county is the Yorkshire. There appears to be about equal numbers of Berkshires, Tamworths and Chester Whites, with a very occasional trace of Duroc Jerseys. There seems to be no indication of a tendency to change unless it is slightly in favor of the bacon type. Grade sires are used in quite a number of sections through- out the county. There is a disposition in most districts to increase the output. The average litter is 8, and it seems to have been a fairly good year, the percentage of loss not being larger than is usually the case. The number of sows kept by the average farmer has increased each year since 1904; the number of sows kept in 1906 being largely in excess of those kept in 1904. One correspondent, however, states regarding his section : "I cannot say as to breeding sows, but very careful enquiry shows that the number of pigs raised in 1904 will equal that of 1905 and 1906 combined." In only one case is there a report that the delivery up to September 1 st will be less than during the same period for 1904 and 1905. In some other cases the report was that there would likely be no change in the delivery. In most cases, however, the reports favored the likelihood of a decided increase. The reports as to cost of feeding show an average of $4.16 per cwt. for summer feeding, and $4.87 per cwt. for winter feeding; reports vary- ing from 2 to 5^ cents per pound for summer feeding and 3 to 6 cents per pound for winter feeding. One correspondent reports as follows : "With clover and rape pasture and a good supply of whey, about \\ cents in summer, and with skim milk and grain about 5^ cents in winter." Leeds. The favorite breed in this county is Yorkshire. There are quite a number of Berkshires and Tamworths, and occasionally some Chester \\ r hites and a few Duroc Jerseys. Crosses of all these breeds are also found. In this section they appear to be anxious to keep strictly along the line of the bacon type, and in other sections where they are not pro- ducing this type at the present time, there is a tendency to change to the bacon hog. In several sections grade sires seem to be used quite exten- sively. In some sections, however, they are not used at all, and in others to only a very limited extent. There seems to be every expectation of a general increase in production throughout the county. About 8 per cent, of the correspondents report a probable decrease; about 12 per cent, no change, and about 80 per cent, an increase. The reports show a small increase in the number of breeding sows in 1905 and a further slight increase in 1906. The average size of the litter is reported as 7.97. There seems to be a greater percentage of loss than usual this year in quite a number of sections. Taking the county as a whole, there will '"r^bablv be an increase in the delivery before the 1st of September. Quite a large number of the sections, however, report a decrease, and others that there will probably be no change from the deliveries of 190J. 24 and 1905. The estimates of the cost of feeding vary from 3 to 10 cents in summer and 4 to 10 cents in winter. The average of the various estimates for summer feeding is $4.70 per cwt., and for winter feeding $5.90 per cwt. Grenville. Taking the county as a whole, the most popular breed is the York- shirt. The popularity of the Berkshire, Tamworth, and Chester White is about evenly "divided. In some special districts, however, the Chester White breed is very strong in numbers, while in several other sections there is a tendency to go more into Chester Whites. The most general disposition, however, is to go more into the Yorkshire breed. In a great many districts there are a number of grade sires used, while one report states they are practically all grade sires in that section. There is a gen- eral desire to increase the output, but young pigs are very scarce and very high in price ; more brood sows will probably be kept. One report states: "Would increase the output if they could get the pigs, but cannot get young pigs. Some are paying $3, and even $4, for four weeks' old pigs." There is a very slight increase in the number of sows, in both 1905 and 1906, over 1904. The average litter is 6.7, and the percentage of loss is considered to be considerably greater than usual. According to the reports, there is no doubt there will be a lighter delivery from this county before September 1st, than in 1904 and 1905. Some few sections, however, report an increase. The average estimate of cost for summer feeding is $4.60 per cwt., and $5.35 per cwt. for winter feeding. The lowest and highest estimates for summer feeding are $3.50 per cwt. and $5.50 per cwt., and for winter feeding $4 and $6.75 per cwt. Dundas. The farmers in this county show very little preference for any parti- cular breed. There are about the same number of Yorkshires, Berkshires and Tamworths (including crosses of each), with perhaps a few less of the Chester White breed. In quite a number of the sections there is an inclination to use more of the Berkshire or of the Chester White in cross- ing with the Yorkshire or the Tamworth. One correspondent states : "Few if any pure-breds are kept in this district except sires. The Ohio Improved Chester White has quite a strong foothold here. The feeders are principally the get of a top cross of Ohio Improved Chester White or Berkshire. Very few Yorkshires are raised here. Unfortunately, the buyers here do not discriminate between the short thick fat and the bacon type, and the hog sought after by the feeders here is the one that will put pounds on the fastest anywhere over the body." Another corre- spondent states : "The tendency of late has been to cross-breed, also to breed fat hogs again, as we find we can produce them cheaper, being better grass pigs. Instead of breeding the thin bacon hog or the thick fat pig, we have been crossing the Yorkshire and Chester White, and the Berkshire and Tamworth." •25 Grade sires are used to a limited extent in quite a number of sec- tions, and in several sections quite extensively. There is a desire in a number of districts to purchase young pig's for feeding, but, as is the case in a number of the eastern counties, they are not available. This shows there is a desire to increase the output, which will probably have an effect about November or December. A report states : 'The hog question was never on a better footing than at present. Spring pigs are being bought ctt extraordinary prices. The market is very encouraging, and the by- products of our dairy industry will be larger this season than ever, so that more hogs will be fed." The number of brood sows will be consid- erably more than in 1905, about the same number as in 1904. The average litter is 7.16. Reports from most sections give a very high per- centage of loss among young pigs. Present indications are that deliv- eries will be considerably less before September 1st than in either 1904 or 1905. Some sections, however, report a probable increase. The cost of feeding varies from $3.25 to $6 per cut. for summer feeding and $4 to $8 for winter feeding. The average of estimates for summer feeding is §4-47 P er cwt., and for winter feeding S5.48 per cut. Stormont. The popularity of the breeds is in the order named : Yorkshires, Berkshires, Chester Whites and Tamworths, apparently not very many of the latter. The Yorkshire seems to be gaining ground, a favorite cross being either Yorkshire-Berkshire or Yorkshire-Chester White. In several sections there appears a disposition to go more to Berkshires, and in one section from Berkshires to Chester Whites. Grade sires are used to a limited extent in quite a number of districts. There is quite an evident feeling that it is desirable to increase the output on account of prices, but in a large number of sections there seems to be a great scarcity of young pigs. The number of breeding sows will show quite a large increase in the county, probably about 30 per cent, over 1904. The average litter is 7.31. Sixty per cent, of the correspondents report a greater loss than usual ; ten per cent, report a more favorable year, while thirty per cent, state the loss was about the same as is usually the case. The report from one section states : "Farmers are increasing the number of breeding sows every year. This year they are raising some fine youno- sows, principally Yorkshires." The report from another district states Ihe average farmer keeps about two brood sows right along, regardless of market fluctuations." The correspondents are about equally divided on the question of a greater or less delivery up to September 1st, so that it is probable the output from the county will average about the same as 1905. Some sections may send heavier deliveries and others lighter I he average for cost of summer feeding is $4.27 per cwt., and for winter feeding is $5.17 per cwt. The highest estimate for winter feeding is $6 2? per cwt., and the lowest $4 per cwt. The highest for summer feeding- is $5-5° P er cwt., and the lowest $3 per cwt. 26 Glengarry. The Yorkshire and the Berkshire are the favorite breeds. There are a few Tam worths, and fewer Chester Whites. There is an inclination in quite a number of sections to get more extensively into Yorkshires. This seems to be a special feature of this county. In almost all sections grade sires are used to a limited extent, and in several sections quite exten- sively. There is an evident desire among the farmers to procure more pigs for feeding, but they are scarce, and there is great difficulty in get- ting them. There also seems to be a shortage of brood sows. One correspondent says: "There is a shortage, and will be until young sows come to a breeding age." Another says : "Generally at this time of year people have a lot of litters on hand, and formerly it was customary to sell them after weaning, but pork looks so good at present that the majority will hold on to them. So far as the increase is concerned, it is believed the output will be about the same, as the prices fluctuate so readily, the farmers are afraid to deal extensively." Another report states : "All are eager to increase their output. It is very hard to pur- chase either young pigs or brood sows." Another report : 'The general opinion is that the real bacon hog will be scarce, as a large percentage of the brood sows were sold lately because of the high price of pork." The number of brood sows kept in 1906 will show an increase over 1905 and a very slight increase over 1904. The average litter is 6.3, and it is the almost general opinion that there was a much greater percentage of loss this year than usual. All correspondents, with the exception of one, report a probable decrease in the delivery up to September 1st, as com- pared with 1905. The estimates as to cost of summer feeding vary from $3 per cwt. to $5 per cwt., and for winter feeding from $4.50 per cwt. to $10 per cwt. The average for summer feeding is $4 per cwt., and $5.75 per cwt. for winter feeding. Prescott. The principal breeds in this county are Yorkshires and Berkshires, while in some sections there are a number of Chester Whites. Some correspondents report a tendency to go still more into the Yorkshires and Berkshires, while one correspondent reports a disposition to go more into Chester Whites. In very few districts are pure-bred sires used entirely. In some districts the majority of the sires used are grades. There appears to be a disposition to increase the output in this county, although there has been practically no change in the number of breeding sows since 1904. The average size of the litter is 7.5, and the correspondents state that the loss is much larger than usual. The general idea is that the delivery up to September 1st will be considerably less than up to Septem- ber 1st of 1904 and 1905. The only correspondent giving an estimate of cost of feeding in this county places the cost of summer feeding at from 6c. to 7c. per lb., and for winter feeding at from t to ih cents more. 27 Russell. The most popular breed is the Yorkshire. The Berkshire and Tarn- worth are also quite plentiful in some sections. Besides these breeds there are also a smaller number of Chester Whites and a few Duroc Jerseys. The Yorkshire-Berkshire cross is well thought of, and some prefer the Yorkshire-Chester White. Any tendency to change the type is given in the following reports from different sections: "Whatever changes have been made were from Yorkshires to Chester Whites. Very few, if any, are shipped to the packers; a large local lumbering village absorbing all, or nearly all, produced." "The farmers in this section usually market hogs weighing from 200 to 250 lbs., which is somewhat lighter than previously, formerly weighing 300 lbs." "Owing to the addition of bacon boars through the township, the bacon type of hog is slowly but surely replac- ing the thick fat hog. Farmers are breeding their sows 1 to more bacon type boars, and replacing their old sows with grades from these boars." In nearly all sections of the county, grade sires are used to a limited extent. There is an evident desire to increase the output if it could be done by purchasing voung pigs, which at the present time are not avail- able. One report states: "The production will likely be less than last year. There are about the same number of brood sows, but a greater loss of voung pigs." There is also a scarcity of brood sows for sale, although the number of sows kept has increased each year since^ 1904. It is suggested, however, that a number of these are young 'sows, which is given as a reason for a greater percentage of loss among litters this spring, and also for the young pigs coming later than usual. The average litter is given as 8. There does not seem to be a likelihood of deliveries being any heavier before September 1st of this year than in 1905. The lowest and highest estimates of cost for summer feeding are $2.50 per cwt., and $5 per cwt. respectively, and for winter feeding S3. 50 per cwt. and $6 per cwt. The average for summer feeding is $4.15 per cwt., and for winter feeding $4.95 per cwt. Carleton. Yorkshires are used most extensively in this county, with quite a good number of Berkshires ; there are also a few Chester W T hites and a few Tamworths. There is in some sections a reported tendency to go more into Yorkshires, and in one or two cases to go more to Berkshires and to Chester Whites. About fifty per cent, of the correspondents report that grade sires are used to some extent in their districts. There is a fairly confident feeling, and it is probable there will be a slight increase in the production in this county. There is a slight increase in the num- ber of sows in both 1905 and 1906. The average litter is 7.4, and the percentage of loss is about normal. It is expected the deliveries for the county will be heavier than to September 1st, 1905. The average of estimates of cost for summer feed- ing is $4.44 per cwt., and for winter feeding $5.50 per cwt. The ranee 28 of estimates for summer feeding is from $3.25 to $ 5 -5° P™ + cwt \> and . for winter feeding $4 to $6 per cwt. One correspondent reports : far- mers in this vicinity do not raise hogs extensively, and the general feeling is that, owing to high prices of grains, there is very little profit for the average feeder. Where an almost exclusive meal ration is ted, 1 would say 6^ cents per lb. ; if roots and skim milk are fed with ration, cost would be considerably less; and in summer on good pasture, with skim milk, the cost should not be above 3! cents per lb." Lanark. The breeds in this county are found in the greatest numoers according to the following order : Yorkshires, Berkshires, Chester Whites and Tamworths. When any tendency to change is noted it is principally more to bacon hog type, although in one or two sections it is stated there is a tendency to go the other way. In a large percentage of districts grade sires are used to some extent. In most districts there is a disposition to increase the output. Considerably more breeding sows are being kept than in either 1904 or 1905. The size of the average litter is 8.45, the percentage of loss being about normal. The delivery before September 1st will be heavier than in 1905, in some sections correspondents report heavier than ever before. In some local sections, however, deliveries may be slightly lighter. One correspondent states: "Delivery before September 1st will be much heavier. Cannot remember at any previous time so many early litters as there are this year." The average of estimates of cost give the following : for summer feeding, $4.30 per cwt. ; winter feeding, $5.37 per cwt. Estimates range from 3J to 6 cent per lb. for summer feeding, and 4^ to 6 cents per lb. for winter feeding. Renfrew. The principal breeds in the various sections are Yorkshires and Berkshires, with, in some districts, Chester Whites and Tamworths. There is a tendency in a number of sections to go more into Yorkshires, and in two or three districts to Yorkshire-Berkshire cross. In almost all districts correspondents report the use of grade sires to some extent, in some places quite largely, though generally the feeling is that they are used much less than formerly. The tendency is to increase the produc- tion, taking the county as a whole; some sections report otherwise. One correspondent states : "The farmers of this municipality do not raise hogs for market. The most of them do not raise enough for their own use." There is a slight increase over both 1904 and 1905 in the number of sows kept. The average litter is 7.56, and the percentage of loss reported is about normal, although a very large proportion of litters do not come until later than the time at which the reports were made. The delivery before September 1st will probably be slightly lighter than in 1905. Regarding cost of feeding, very few correspondents make any statement. The average of those given for summer feeding is $5.50 per cwt., and for 29 winter feeding $8.12 per cwt., the estimates ranging- from $4.50 to $8 per cwt. for summer feeding, and $5.50 to $12 per cwt. for winter feeding. Haliburton. The hogs raised in this county are chiefly for home consumption. Not much interest is taken in hog raising. Those raised are mostly grades of the Berkshire and Yorkshire breeds, and there is very little tendency to make any change, or go more extensively into the business. A number of grade sires are used. Muskoka. Little attention appears to be paid to hog raising here. Where pure- breds are kept they arc Berkshires, Yorkshires or Chester Whites, but in most cases both boars and sows are grades. As not sufficient pigs are raised to supply local markets, not much attention is paid to type. The scarcity of pigs seems due to the cost of feed, which is so high as to make farmers think the business not very profitable, even in summer. There is little tendency to increase production. Few farmers keep more than one brood sow, and many have none at all. At the time of writing sows were just beginning to farrow, so little information could be given regarding litters. Figures are not available as to the cost of feeding hogs. Parry Sound. The principal breed in this district is the Berkshire, apparently being more numerous than all others together. Next come the Yorkshires and Tamworths, with very few Chester Whites and some Poland Chinas. Any inclination there is to change seems to be towards the Yorkshires, and in some cases more to Berkshire, but there does not seem to be very much disposition to make any change. In almost all sections grade sires are used; in a great many cases almost altogether. It seems likely that there will be no change in the output of this district at the present time. In a great many of the sections the number grown is sufficient for home consumption only. The number of sows in 1904. and 1905 is apparently the same, with a slight increase in 1906. The average litter is 7.21. A very small proportion of the sows have far- rowed yet, so that in a very few cases can an estimate be given regard- ing the percentage of loss. The delivery before September 1st will be practically the same as in 1905. There are very few estimates as to the cost of feeding. What there are range from 3 to 6 cents per lb. in summer, and 4^ to 7 cents per lb. in winter; the average for summer being $4.75 per cwt., and $5.70 per cwt. for winter feeding. There appears to be practically no winter feeding done, and the number of hogs in summer is not sufficient for home consumption. Nipissing, Manitoulin, Algoma, Thunder Bay and Rainy River. In most places in these districts there appears to have been but little attention paid to hog raising as yet. What hogs are raised are 30 used by those who feed them, or are sold to the local markets. Some pure-bred Berkshires, Yorkshires, Tamworths and Chester Whites are kept but grades are generally used. It is likely production will increase slowly but will not be more than enough for home markets for some time. SUMMARY.* Popularity of Breeds. Yorkshires : Out of 42 counties the Yorkshire is reported to be the principal breed in 33, and in 7 others is a tie with some other breed for first position. In one county Yorkshires are in fourth place, and one county fifth. In 14 counties of the 33 first mentioned the Yorkshires are far in excess of the next most popular breed. Berkshires : In one county the Berkshire is the principal breed, and in 7 divides first place with some other breed. In 23 counties the Berk- shire comes second, while in 8 counties they divide honors for second place. In 3 counties they are third. Tamworths : In 2 counties the Tamworths tie with some other breed for position of most popular breed. In 2 counties they are second, and in 8 counties equal with some other breed as second choice. In 23 counties they come third; in 10 of these counties as well as in 6 others they are in small numbers. Chester Whites : In one county Chester Whites tie with some other breed for position of being most popular, and are second in 1 county and a tie for second place in 2 counties. In 5 counties Chester Whites are third, and in 2 other counties equal with some other breed for third place; in 18 counties they are in fourth place, an explanation from some of these counties stating they are very few in numbers. Duroc Jerseys and Poland Chinas : These breeds are seldom men- tioned except in the counties of Essex and Kent. Yorkshires are found in the strongest numbers, comparatively, in counties west of the County of Ontario, while the Chester Whites are mostly found in counties east of the County of Durham. The Berk- shires are fairly evenly divided in almost all counties. The Tamworths are mostly used in sections taking in the counties of Bruce, Grey, Sim- coe, Dufferin, Peterborough, and Victoria, and counties Northumberland to Dundas. While all crosses are used, there is no doubt that the most popular cross throughout the Province is a cross between the Yorkshire and the Berkshire. Taking the Province as a whole, the evident tendency is to produce more hogs of the approved bacon type. In the western p art o f the * The reports from the Districts of Haliburton. Muskoka. Parry Sound, Nipissing. Algoma, Manitoulin. Thunder Bay and Rainy River are not included in tlu> summary, owing to the fact that hogs are not grown in these districts to any considerable extent. The report as to cost of feeding from' the county of Prescotl was not sufficiently definite to include in average cost of feeding for the Province. 31 Province there is an inclination to use more Berkshires than heretofore for the purpose of crossing, principally with the Yorkshire, although crosses with other breeds are also rioted. In the eastern part of the Province the tendency in most sections is to go more to Yorkshires. In one or two counties the Chester Whites find considerable favor ; also the Tamworths, although the general impression given by the reports is that these two breeds are both decreasing in popularity. It may be noted, however, that in the counties where the Tamworths are mostly found, there seems to be no general tendency to change; the principal breed in these counties, however, is Yorkshire, the Berkshire being slightly in excess of the Tamworths. It would also appear that while the Yorkshires are increasing in the greatest numbers throughout the Province, the Berkshires are showing a higher percentage of gain. Quality of Sires. Pure bred sires are used almost entirely in 25 per cent, of the counties, while in about 20 per cent, grade sires are used to a limited extent. In about 35 per cent, of the counties grade sires are used still more frequently, while in about 20 per cent, they are found in a great many sections, and, as some of the correspondents state, are used in some districts of their counties almost altogether. As a rule the counties in which the smallest number of grade sires are used are west cf the county of Hastings, and the district taking in the north-western pen- insula will be found to "be freer from the use of grade sires than any other section of the Province, although there are other individual counties from which the reports are just as favorable. Considerable numbers of grade sires are still being used in many sections of the eastern counties. Production. The general tendency throughout the Province is slightly to increase production. In the eastern part of the Province it has been customary for many farmers to depend upon breeders in their locality for their supply of young pigs for feeding ; it has been noted that the demand this spring considerably exceeds the supply, the breeders who usually sell their pigs retaining them this year on account of the good prices for hogs. It is quite probable that the feeders who are short this year may be inclined to breed pigs for themselves another year, which would add considerably to the production in that locality. While the tendency throughout the Province is to increase as above, considerable caution •is observed among many individual breeders and feeders not to go into the business too extensively,- for fear that over production might bring prices down to an unprofitable point,. The number of breeding sows was decreased considerably during; 1905, while 1906 shows an increase in the number not only over 1905 but also over 1904. The reports indicate that in 21 counties the sows were decreased in 1905, while 13 counties report slight increases and eight counties report no change. Comparing 1906 with 1905, 35 counties 32 report increases while only two report decreases, and five counties no change in the number of sows. Comparing- 1906 with 1904. in 26 counties correspondents report increases in sows, while in 9 counties decreases are reported, and in seven counties no change. The districts in which increases are noted in 1905 over 1904 are confined mostly to the eastern counties. It is also worthy of notice that in the comparison of 1906 with 1904, the reports show that the counties in which a decrease is reported, are practically all in the west- ern part of the Province ; also that the increases in the number of breeding- sows are largest in the eastern counties. This would indicate that the eastern part of the Province is relatively increasing production much more rapidly than farther west. In almost all portions of the Province there is an apparent good demand for brood sows which con- siderably exceeds the supply. While the number of brood sows has increased almost generally throughout the Province since 1905, the reports of most counties indi- cate that the delivery of hogs up to September 1st will be lighter than 1905. About 65 per cent, of the counties report lighter deliveries prob- able, while about 20 per cent, report no change. This apparently indi- cates that, taking into consideration the large reported increase of breeding sows, with the lighter deliveries before the 1st of September, hogs will be marketed very heavily later in the fall. The percentage of loss in young pigs, however, is greater than usual in a large proportion of the counties, which will have its effect upon the fall deliveries. Taking the Province as a whole, the average number of pigs in spring litters to reach weaning age this season is 7.61. The average size of the spring litter from the 17 counties which report a normal loss is 7.77, the average from the two counties report- ing less losses than usual, 8.35, while the average from 23 counties reporting more loss than usual is 7.43. A comparison of these averages will demonstrate that in years when there is the usual percentage of loss throughout the Province, the average number of pigs per litter to reach weaning age is 7.77. Cost of Feeding. Taking the averages of the cost of feeding as given in the different counties, the average for the Province for summer feeding is $4.51 per cwt., and for winter feeding $5.38 per cwt. In very few cases do correspondents state that the figures given are the results of actual experiments. In a number of cases no information is given as to whether the figures are the result of experiment or an estimate. In a small number of cases, however, it is stated that experiments have been made and that the figures given are the result of such experiments. It is almost invariably noticed where this is done that for both summer and winter feeding the cost is considerably below the average given above. A number of correspondents, especially in western Ontario, state that with comfortable quarters and roots, the cost of feeding is no greater in winter than in summer. 33 WHERE ARE WE AT? By G. E. Day, Profi Animal Husbandry, O.A.C., Guelph. During the last winter a very lively discussion has been carried on in the agricultural press regarding- the question of bacon production. The whole discussion was started by the fact that Canadian packers fail to discriminate in price between the bacon hog and the fat type. Around this storm centre the discussion has raged, and a great many matters of greater or less importance have been swept from their natural place by this inky cyclone, and whirled before the public in such fantastic fashion that it would be little wonder if many men failed to remember their natural aspect. Perhaps it is still rather early to emerge from the storm cellar, and yet the sooner we earnestly set to work to make the best use of what is left us, the better it will be for all concerned. Among the points brought into the discussion is the advisability of giving up breeding the bacon hog, and going into the production of the fat hog. When a man is on the top of a high fence and makes up his mind to jump down, he will naturally take a lively interest in the spot where he will alight. When we talk of dropping the bacon hog and taking up the production of the fat type, we should carefully consider what would be the consequence of such a step. Judging from the points which have been brought out in the discussion, we are led to conclude that the Canadian packer can handle a limited numbe; of fat hogs to good advantage; that he can, in fact, make as much money out of a certain number of fat hogs as he can out of an equal number of bacon hogs. While this is true, it does not follow- that if all Canadian hogs were of the fat type, the profits would be the same as they are at present, nor does it follow that the prices received by the farmer would be equal to those of to-day. It does not require much thought to understand how this comes about. There is a certain home demand for fat hogs, and home-grown fat hogs can be used to advantage to supply that demand. But, just so soon as that demand is supplied, and an attempt is made to dispose of the surplus in Great Britain, we find ourselves face to face with American competition. It is right here that the bacon hog helps us out of our difficulties. He can go to the British market, and keep out of direct competition with his fat cousin; but if we attempted to market the products of the fat hog in Britain, we would soon find ourselves put out of business by American competition. There is no question that the nericans can give us "cards and spades" and beat us out in the pro- duction of fat hogs. With their immense and varied home market, and their cheap corn, they have every advantage in their favor. Thus, we see that the bacon hog enables us *to dispose of our surplus product in a •Stable market. Remove the bacon hog, and the possibility of dispos- ing of our surplus product to advantage disappears. It should not be difficult for the average intellect to grasp the situation, and enable our farmers to realize that the present good prices for fat hogs are rendered. possible by the existence of the bacon hog. The bacon hog is the key to 3 Bull.— 139. 34 the situation, it opens the door for our surplus product, and prevents congestion. If we throw away the key, our hog industry will dwindle away to the position it occupied years ago, becoming practically limited to supplying the local demand. Upon which side of the fence will our farmers jump? Surely none of them wish to become impaled upon the snout of a large-sized American fat hog. Another question which has been raised is whether it pays Canadian farmers to feed hogs of any kind. Some writers have gone so far as practically to advocate that farmers should drop out of the hog business altogether. This position is so unreasonable and so childish as scarcely to deserve notice. We find men who cannot make the raising of sugar beets pay ; other men engage in the operation and make a fair profit. We also find men who cannot make dairying pay, and others who find it a very profitable business. The same may be said of almost any business undertaking, whether connected with agriculture or not, and it would be a strange thing if the feeding of hogs were any exception to the general rule. While everyone will admit that it is possible to lose money on hogs, at the same time it is possible to make money, as has been demonstrated a great many times. Those who feel sure they are losing money in the hog business had better stay out of it, but they should have the good grace to give those men who are engaged in it credit for understanding their business, and being their own judges as to whether they should stay in it or not. But perhaps the most plaintive and most general wail comes from those who believes that it costs a great deal more to produce the bacon hog than to produce hogs of the fat type. This belief is extremely wide- spread, and probably has a firm place in the minds of ninety-nine out of one hundred farmers. When we come to sift the evidence, however, we cannot find a particle of proof in favor of this theory. At both Guelph and Ottawa it has been found impossible to demonstrate that there is any fixed relation between the type of the pig and the cost of producing one hundred pounds increase in weight. If a pig is thrifty, has a good con- stitution and good digestive organs, it can make good use of its food, whether it belongs to the bacon or to the fat type. In addition to the work done at Guelph and at Ottawa, the Iowa Experiment Station con- ducted three experiments with six different breeds of swine, and a com- parison of their results with the results obtained at Guelph with the same six breeds should convince any thoughtful person that breed has practi- cally nothing to do with economical production. It is worthy of note that one or two experiments amount to practically nothing so far as establishing a certain point is concerned. In our own experiments, which we are carrying on with cross-bred swine, we have two litters of pigs of identically the same breeding, and yet one group is making very much cheaper gains than the other. If these two groups had happened to belong to different breeds, the person unfamiliar' with experimental work would likely conclude that the difference was solely attributable to the breed. Since they are of identically the same breeding, and since the 35 food is exactly the same for both groups, it follows that there must be some other cause for this difference in cost. Individuality is far more effective than breed or type in determining- the cost of production. This case is quoted simply to show the uncertainty of a single experiment, and yet you will "find a great many people thoroughly convinced that their view is the correct one for the simple reason that some one, and possibly very imperfect, test happened to result in a certain way. It shows how careful we must be in drawing conclusions, and when we study all avail- able data regarding the relative cost or producing one hundred pounds increase in weight in bacon hogs and in fat hogs, we are forced to the conclusion that, to say the least, it has never been proved, other things being equal, that the bacon hog is any more expensive to produce than the fat hog. A very important problem which has attracted a good deal of atten- tion throughout this discussion, and which is worthy of careful research, is the problem of the average cost of producing hogs of suitable weight for bacon purposes. We find the cost of raising hogs variously estimated, some claiming that they can raise their hogs at less than four cents per pound, live weight, and others that it costs in the neighborhood of six cents per pound. Unfortunately, we have not sufficient data at hand to enable us to make an authoritative statement. We are accumulating infor- mation as rapidly as possible, and so far as our information goes, it indicates that if moderate market values are attached to the foods con- sumed, the cost may range all the way from a little over four cents per pound to somewhere in the neighborhood of five cents per pound. Methods of feeding and the individuality of the pigs influence results, and it will require considerable time to establish anything which may be regarded as fully satisfactory. The William Davies people, of Toronto, have shown their interest in this problem in a practical way, and are offering to farmers who will keep an accurate record of all foods con- sumed by their pigs from the time they are weaned until they are ready for market, and who will also report the weights of the pigs at weaning time and at the time of marketing, an advance of 50 cents per hundred over the prevailing market price at the time the pigs are marketed. This very liberal offer has been accepted by quite a number of farmers, and we expect quite a large number yet to take advantage of it. The infor- mation thus obtained should be of great value. To discuss thoroughly this whole question would require a great deal more space than should be given to one article, but an attempt has been made to present a few important points for careful consideration, and we trust that readers will be careful in drawing conclusions, and that they will consider all phases of the matter before they rashly make up their minds to sacrifice the reputation Canada has obtained in export bacon. The more we reflect upon the matter, the firmer becomes the conviction that Canada has nothing to gain and everything to lose if she abandons the production of the bacon hog. INDEX. Number of Holts sold or Coant'esand slaughtered during year Districts - ending June 30, 1905. Oleoma . . ' 6,817 29 Brant : 40,354 9 Bruce 76,402 13 Carle-ton 28,472 2] Dufferin 44,461 16 qundas 32,711 24 Durham 47, 753 20 Elgin 81,440 4 Essex 102,880 2 Frontenac 24,707 23 Glengarry 20,981 26 Grenville 2.1,790 24 Grey 105,917 11 Haldimand 32,779 5 Ealiburton 2,984 29 Halton 32,561 16 Hastings 57,027 21 Huron 99,437 12 Kent 117,007 3 Lambton 70,701 i Lanark 26,269 28 Leeds 37,235 23 Lennox and Addington 30,781 22 Lincoln 26 465 6 Manitoulin 5,965 29 Middlesex 87,408 • . . . 8 Muskoka 5,378 29 Nipiesing 3,820 29 Norfolk 54,540 5 Northumberland 55,416 20 Ontario 68.382 19 ( >xford 90,375 8 Parry Sound 6,869 29 Peel 39,680 17 Forth 91,548 12 Peterborough 39.410 is Prescott 12,556 26 Prince Edward 25,861 21 Renfrew 18,613 28 Russell 9,901 27 Simcoe 112,888 15 Stormonl 21,808 25 Victoria 42,640 is Waterloo 62,884 11 Weiland 23,196 6 Wellington 91,35s 10 Wentworth 41,216 7 York 81,931 17 [36] LIST OF BULLETINS Published by tuk Ontario Department ok Agriculture, Toronto. Serial No. Date. 116 Aug. 117 Jan. 1901 1902 1902 118 Jan. 119 April 1902 120 May 1902 121 June 1902 122 June 1902 123 July 1902 124 Dec. 1902 125 Dec. 1902 126 April 1903 127 May 1903 128 Aug. 1903 129 130 Dec. Dec. 1903 1903 131 Dec. 1903 132 Dec. 1903 133 134 Dec. June 1903 1904 135 June 1904 136 Aug. 1904 137 Aug. 1904 138 Feb. 1905 139 Feb. 1905 140 Feb. 1905 141 April 1905 142 143 144 May June June 1905 1905 1905 145 June 1905 146 147 Nov. Feb. 1905 1906 148 Mar. 1906 149 July 1906 Title. Anther. The Hessian Fly in Ontario Win. Lochhead. Pasteurization of Milk for Butter-Making. . . { F q Harrison. Yeast and its Household Use F. O. Harrison. Ventilation of Farm Stables and Dwellings. J. B. Reynolds. Bitter Milk and Cheese F. C. Harrison. Ripening of Cheese in Cold Storage compared / H. H. Dean, with ripening in ordinary Curing Rooms \ F. C. Harrison. Spray Calendar Win. Lochhead. _. . , a . . „ .. < J. B. Reynolds. Cold Storage of Fruit { H. L. Hutt. Nature Study, or Stories in Agriculture Staff, O.A.C. Roup (A Disease of Poultry) \^ Streit. _,,„„.., J C. A. Zavitz. Peas and Pea Weevil [ Wm Lochhead . Farm Poultry W.R.Graham. The Weeds of Ontario { Wln .' Lodihead. Bacon Production G. E. Day. Bacterial Content of Cheese cured at different JF. C. Harrison. Temperatures |Wm. T. Connell. Ripening of Cheese in Cold Storage compared /H. H. Dean. with Ripening in Ordinary Curing Room \R. Harcourt. n a u • * i o» .j JF. C. Harrison. Roup ; An Experimental Study 1 jj streit Present Condition of San Jose Scale in Ontario Win. Lochhead. Hints in Making Nature Collections in Public and High Schools W. H. Muldrew. The Cream-Gathering Creamery t?"iL McSKtara. Some Bacterial Diseases of Plants prevalent in / F. C. Harrison. Ontario IB. Barlow. A Bacterial Disease of Cauliflower and Allied Plants F. C. Harrison. The Composition of Ontario Feeding Stuffs.. W. P. Gamble. An Experimental Shipment of Fruit to Winni- peg J. B. Reynolds. The Results of Field Experiments with Farm I Crops C. A. Zavitz. Gas-Producing Bacteria and Their Effect on Milk and its Products F. C. Harrison. Outlines of Nature-Study Wm. Lochhead. Dairy School Bulletin Dairy School. Apple Culture H. L. Hutt. Butter Preservatives { g; %J*& Uses of Fruits, Vegetables and Honey Fruits Recommended for Ontario Planters. . . Fruit Ex. Stations. Experiments with Nodule-forming Bacteria. . -[ g Bariow" 8011 ' The Swine Industry ONTARIO DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Ontario Agricultural College BULLETIN 150 The Common Fungus and Insect Pests OF Growing Vegetable Crops BY WM. LOCHHEAD, BA., M.S., Professor of Biology AND T. D. JARVIS, B.SA., Lecturer in Biology PUBLISHED BY THE ONTARIO DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE TORONTO, ONT., JULY. 1906 Printed by L. K. CAMERON, Printer to the King's Most Excellent Majesty BULLETIN 150.] [JULY, 1906. Ontario Department of Agriculture. ONTARIO AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND EXPERIMENTAL FARM THE COMMON FUNGUS AND INSECT PESTS OF GROWING VEGETABLE CROPS. By Wm. Lochhead and T. D. Jarvis. INTRODUCTION. In the following: pages an attempt is made to describe concisely the common fungus and insect enemies of vegetable crops, and to state briefly the best methods of controlling these pests. It is believed that the pub- lication of such information in bulletin form will fill a long-felt want. While criticism may, perhaps, be made of some of the treatments recom- mended, to the effect that they are too expensive, too burdensome, or but partially effective, it can at least be said that they are the best that up to the present have been devised. It is true that with some vegetable crops the returns are so small that every means must be taken to reduce the cost of growing and marketing the crop. As a consequence, some growers will, perhaps, prefer to replant rather than practise the treat- ments recommended in this bulletin. Experience will, we are sure, convince the majority of growers that spraying is, after all, a cheap form of crop insurance. It may be true that with some diseases only a few plants die, and the grower does not lose much, yet it often happens that the disease destroys practically the whole crop, and the grower is left without anything to show for his work. The spray-pump should be in evidence in every vegetable gar- den, and to get the best results from spraying, the following rules should be followed as closely as possible : — i. Buy the best spray-pump outfit in the market. 2. Have stock solutions of Bordeaux and other common substances in readiness for spraying. 3. Spray thoroughly and intelligently, i.e., know the habits of the fungi and insects, the preparation of the best remedies, and the best time for the application of the remedies. It should be remembered that pre- vention of fungus disease is possible, but their cure is hardly practicable. DISEASES. Diseases of plants, for convenience of consideration, may be grouped as follows : First, those caused by (") insects and other animals, {b) fungi, (c) bacteria, (d) slime moulds, and [e) flowering plants; and, second, the unfavorable action of soil, drought, heat, wind, lightning, frost, and sun scald. Sometimes two or more of these causes may operate to bring about a diseased condition of the plant. In particular we may note that plants which have been rendered unhealthy by excessive mois- ture, excessive dryness, or imperfect access of light and air, are more liable to attack from insects and fungi. It is notalways easy to tell when a plant is in a diseased condition, for the condition of a healthy plant varies between fixed limits, and it is only when these limits are exceeded in either direction that the life of the plant is threatened, and there is disease instead of health. We sometimes group the causes which bring about diseases in plants as external and internal, but it is very probable that the so-called internal causes will be found to be nothing more than external causes acting- in an indirect manner. Young plants are, as a rule, more liable to attack by fungi and insects than older plants, because their tissues are softer and their cuticle thinner. In the following pages attention will be given only to those diseases in plants which are caused by insects, fungi, and slime moulds. The losses produced every year by the action of insects and fungi on vegetable crops are very large, amounting in Ontario to probably one- half million dollars. While it may be true that some of these losses cannot be averted, yet it is also true that a large percentage of them can be prevented by proper treatment. On account of the low prices pre- vailing in the vegetable markets, the method becomes a very important factor in the control of these pests. In some cases the cost of treatment would amount to as much as the market price of the vegetable. It is our object in the following pages to recommend such treatments as have been found effective and practicable in vegetable gardens cultivated on a commercial basis. A few words about the habits of fungi and insects. Fungi are a group of lower plants (without green-coloring matter) that produce spores instead of seeds. The body of a fungus may be very simple, composed of a few threads, or it may be more complex, composed of many threads matted together. The fungus derives its nourishment from the cells of the plant which it attacks. Sometimes the threads live on the surface of the plant {e.g., the Powdery Mildews), but more frequently they live within the plant, either between or within the cells. Fungi produce, roughly speaking, two kinds of spores — summer spores, capable of developing threads as soon as they are set free; and resting, or winter spores, requiring a period of rest before germinating. Spores are carried by sueh agencies as wind and water, and, coming into contact with a suitable host plant, they develop threads which may enter through wounds- la BULL. 150 or through the skin of the plant. Once within, the mass of threads grows rapidly at the expense of the cells of the host plant, and a diseased condi- tion ensues. Every fungus produces its own characteristic disease and injury, so that it is possible to diagnose the causes of most plant diseases trom the external appearances. The best method of dealing with fungous diseases is along the line of prevention of infection. Careful attention to all wounds, when spores may find entrance ; the rotation of crops, so that the resting spores of one crop may not infect the succeeding ones ; careful attention to the destruction of weeds that may be diseased and infect useful plants ; the use of old rather than fresh manures ; the selection of plump, healthy, and disease- resisting seeds; and the timely and early application of fungicides, are some of the methods usually employed to prevent infection. Insects do fully as much harm as parasitic fungi, and some are also very difficult to control. Wire-worms, White Grubs, and Root-maggots pass their grub or larval stage in the ground, and feed on the roots of plants. Potato "Bugs," asparagus beetles, and grubs, squash-bugs, and plant lice, feed on the stems and leaves, and are more readily treated. For the practical grower, it is important to know that insects are divided into two classes : the biting insects, that chew their food, and the sucking insects. The former can be poisoned by arsenical poisons, but the latter cannot, and must be treated by substances that kill by contact, such as soaps, kerosene emulsions, and tobacco washes. It is also very important to know the life-histories of the most injurious insects, so that they may be attacked during the most vulnerable period of their life. Much can be done by such cultural methods as rotation of crops, high culture, careful removal and burning of rubbish and weeds, and plowing. Short rotations, for example, furnish unfavorable conditions for white grubs, wire-worms, and root-lice. The general plan is to change the crop so frequently that it becomes impossible for any insect to pass through its life stages without being seriously disturbed, and its food supply destroyed. Deep fall-plowing is also an excellent method of controlling wire-worms and white-grubs, and is effective against grass- hoppers and cutworms. As for High Culture, it may be said that vigorous, healthy-growing plants are far less liable to attack, and are far more likely to recover from injury, than those that nre in any way weakened in vitality from lack of fertility or by neglect. Therefore, if a farmer and gardener gfives special attention to the fertility and drainage of his land, procures the best seed, and by proper planting and cultivation secures vigorous plants from the start, and by proper care endeavours to keep them in this condition until the product is matured, he will have accomplished more in preventing loss from insect depredations than he would accomplish by the best remedies applied to half-starved, neglected plants. Asparagus. (Insects.) Common Asparagus Beetle (Crioceris asparagi) : A small, bright- colored beetle, about one-fourth of an inch in length; head, legs, and wing covers of a bright bluish-black color. There are six cream-colored markings on the back of the thorax, and margins of the wing covers are of a light reddish-brown. The brown-colored eggs are deposited on the stalks early in May, and from these hatch dull gray-colored larvae. When the larva? are full grown, they pass into the ground and change to pupae, and about ten days later, emerge as adults. The life-cycle, therefore, only lasts about a month. There are several broods each season, and we usually find eggs, grubs, and adults upon the plants from May until autumn. The winter is passed in the adult stage, under stones or beneath the bark of trees. Remedies : Ridge the earth to protect the young shoots, and dust the plants every few days with air-slaked lime in the morning while the dew is on the plant; when the cutting season is over the plants should be sprayed with Paris green or arsenate c,\ lead This will kill both larvae and adults. When practicable, turn the chickens into feed on the larvae and beetles. Asparagus Beetle. — (Crioceris asparagi, Linn. ) The Twelve-spotted Asparagus Beetle en- larged. Twelve-Spotted Asparagus Beetle (Crioceris 12-punctata) : — The beetles are of a uniform reddish-orange color, with six black spots on each wing cover. They are about the same size as the Common Aspara- gus beetle. The habits of this bettle are much the same as the last Remedies : Same as for Common Asparagus beetle. (Fungus). Rust (Puccinia asparagi) : Very numerous in some plantations. Numerous brown or black oval spore-producing postules break through the skin of the stem. Three kinds of spores are produced, viz., cluster- cup spores, red summer spores, and black winter spores, all on the same plant. Asparagus Rust. 1, a diseased stem ; 2, the cluster-cup stage on early plants ; 3, spores of cluster-cup ; 4, spores of summer stage (uredospores); 5, spores of the the winter, or telentospore stage. Remedies : Spray with resin-bordeaux from July to September at intervals of ten days or two weeks ; dust liberally with flowers of sul- phur ; cut and burn the dead stems in autumn; plant resistant varieties, such as Palmetto and Argenteuil. Beans. (Fungi). Anthracnose {Collectotrichum lindemuthianum) : This disease occurs mainly on the pods, but sometimes on the leaves, as roundish, black, sunken spots, bordered with purple. The spores are produced at the ends of minute threads, massed together at points on the diseased spots. Remedies : Spray with Bordeaux at intervals of two weeks, begin- ning- when the plants are quite small, and continuing into September or October. Soak the seed beans for two hours in formalin solution, made Pink Rot on Bean Anthracnose. a. spores and spore-threads of the Pink Rot, showing the shape, and arrangement of the spores. (After Cornell Bull. 207); 6. bean pods attacked ;bv anthracnose. by dissolving one-half pint in fifteen gallons of water. Destroy infected seedlings and leaves when first observed. Rust (Uromyces appendiculatus) : Bean rust is occasionally injur- ious on some varieties, and is readily recognized by the small brown or black pustules on both sides of the leaf. 77 * Bean Fly. a. adult flies ; b. pupa case in ground : c . maggot ; d . an egg. After Lugger. Remedies : Burn the stalks and rubbish containing- the spores, and plant varieties that are more or less rust-resistant. Beet. (Insects). Old-Fashioxed Potato Beetle (Epicauta vittata) : Ash-Gray Blis= ter Beetle (Macrobasis unicolor), and Black Blister Beetle (Epicauta pennsylvanica : All three species of Blister beetles are injurious in the adult stage. They are about half an inch long, with long- legs, and soft, flexible wing covers. The Old-Fashioned form is striped yellow and black. The Black and Gray forms look much alike, except for color. In the larval stage these insects are beneficial, living upon the eggs of locusts. / Blistering Beetles. Remedies : Spray with arsenical poisons. On account of their bene- ficial nature, it is not advisable to spray unless they are very abundant. Beet-Leaf Miner (Pegomya vicina) : The larvae mine inside the leaf. At first the mines are small, but later, large blotches appear on the upper side of the leaf. The green tissue of the leaf is devoured, and the function of the leaf is destroyed. Remedies : Gathering and destroying infected leaves ; crushing the maggot inside the leaf. Woolly-Bear (Spilosoma virginica) : Large caterpillars, about one and one-fourth inches in length. The color varies from pale yellow to mmm^^>^&^^^ cc Common Yellow Beak. — (SpUosoma virginica) Fab. :~a, caterpillar; h, pupa; c, adult. After Riley. straw color. The adult is a snowy white moth, marked with a few black dots. The larvae feeds on the leaves of the beet. Remedies : Hand picking ; Paris green in Bordeaux. 9 Leaf-Hoppers (Jassidae) : Small, elongated insects, usually pale green in color. They are very active and jump quickly when disturbed. They are provided with sharp sucking beaks, which extract the juices from the surface of the leaf. When present in large numbers, they cause a gradual decline of the plant, and in some cases death. They pass the winter in the adult state, under boards, stones, leaves, etc. Remedies : Collect and burn all rubbish before winter sets in. Contact poisons have not proved very satisfactory. Cabbage. (Insects). Cabbage-Worm (Pieris Rapce) : The common green worm of the cabbage. It is about the same color of green as the cabbage leaf. Its | IT.O.C1U Cabbage Butterfly. The four stages in the butterfly's life history are represented : eggs, larvae or caterpillars, chrysalis, and wings. body is covered with fine short hairs, and when mature it is about one anc a half inches in length. The adult is the common white Cabbage but- terfly. 10 Remedies : Spray with Paris green, using one pound of Paris green to every ioo gallons of water, and adding a little hard or soft soap to prevent the liquid rolling off the cabbage leaves ; hellebore dusted over the cabbage leaves in early morning. Hellebore is poisonous to insects, although harmless to man. It is more expensive than Paris green. Cabbage-Root Maggot (Phorbia brassicce) : This pest is well known to the vegetable growers of Ontario. The eggs are laid by a small fly in the soil near the root of the cabbage. In two or three days the eggs hatch, and the small white maggots find their way to the root of the cab- bage or cauliflower. The young maggot tunnels into the root and the affected plant soon withers and dies. The winter is passed, for the most part, in the pupal condition. Remedies : Carbolic acid emulsion (diluted about thirty times with water) using one-half teacupful to each plant and pouring it about the root with a sprinkler the day after setting and repeated every ten days, until the end of May ; tobacco dust placed around the stem of the plant ; pads of tarred paper about 2 and z\ inches in diameter, placed about the plants shortly after setting time ; destroy diseased plants. The Diamond-back Moth : a, caterpillar ; d, pupa ; e, cocoon ; /, moth — enlarged. Diamond Back Moth (Plutella macidipennis) : Small green-colored caterpillars, about three-eighths of an inch in length. When disturbed they wriggle about and fall to the ground. Their presence is easily detected by the numerous small holes eaten through the leaf. The larval stage lasts about a month, and then they spin small cocoons on the under side of the leaf. About two weeks later the adult moth emerges. There are, at least, two broods in a season. Remedies : Dust or spray the infected plants with the usual Paris green mixtures or solutions, as for Cabbage-worm. Induce vigorous growth by light dressings of nitrate of soda. 11 Zebra Caterpillar (Mamestra picta) : .Very bright-colored caterpil- lars, velvety black on the back, and with bright yellow stripes on each side of the body. They attack many plants of the Cruciferae family, including Turnip, Rape, Cabbage, and Cauliflower. They seldom occur in such numbers as to do much injury. Zebra Caterpillar {Mamestra picta, Harris, i Remedies : Dust plants with Paris green and some dry powder, or spray with Paris green solution. Ci r worms : The cutworms are large, dark-colored insects, about one and a quarter to one and a-half inches in length. They are smooth, naked, and present a greasy looking appearance. When disturbed they curl up The Cabbage Aphis male; 3 and 4. wingless female — 2 and 4 enlarged. Cabbage Maggot ; 1, mag- got ; 2, 3, pupa case ; 4, fly— 1, 3 and 4 enlarged. at both ends. Some confine their ravages to the ground, and are known as ground cutworms. Others, which defoliate trees, are known as "Climbing cutworms." The pupal stage is passed in the ground, and the moths appear in midsummer. They cut off the young plants just below the surface of the soil. 12 Remedies : Sprinkle poisoned bait between the rows (prepared according to the formula), but keep poultry away at such times. The cut- worms always bury themselves in the soil before they die. Aphis (Aphis brassicce) : Minute, soft-bodied insects, covered with a coat of fine, waxy powder. They have sucking mouth parts, and extract the juices from beneath the surface of the leaf. They multiply very rapidly, and about mid-summer the under surface of the leaves becomes literally covered by them. Remedies : Spray with whale-oil soap, prepared by dissolving one pound of the soap in from four to six gallons of the water, and apply as in the case of kerosene emulsion. (Fungi). Club Root (Plasmodiophora brassicce) : This disease is caused by a slime-fungus, and is characterized by irregular enlargements or galls on the roots, and by the spindling nature of the affected cabbage, which makes little or no head. The cells of the galls are abnormally large, and, before maturity, contain a grey or brown granular mass of protoplasm. At maturity this mass is converted into spores, which later are set free in the soil. Naked moving bits of protoplasm escape from the spores, and it is believed that they enter the plants by the root-hairs. Turnips, radish, mustard, shepherd's purse, and other members of the Cruciferae are liable to this disease. Treatment : As the spores may remain dormant for several years in the soil, infected fields should not be used for the same crop for several years ; cabbage on soils rich in lime suffer but little from Club-Root, hence it is advisable to apply a coating of slaked lime (75 bushels to the acre) ; weeds, such as mustard and Shepherd's Purse, should be looked after carefully ; on no account put Club-root refuse on the manure or compost heap, but burn it; "manure from cows fed with clubbed roots will easily infect crops." Black Rot (Pseudomonas campestris) : This is a bacterial disease of cabbage, cauliflower, rape, and Swede turnip, and spreads rapidly in low, damp soils during rainy, moist weather. The lower leaves are usually first attacked, where the veins turn black and the leaves wilt. Treatment : Remove and destroy diseased plants ; avoid low, damp soils, and rotate the crops. Soft Rot (Bacillus oleraceoe), is another bacterial disease of cabbage and cauliflower. (See O.A.C. Bulletin 136.) Carrots. (Insects). The Carrot Rust Fly (Psila roses) : Semi-transparent, yellowish maggots, about one-fourth of an inch long, blunt at the tail end, but 13 tapering- toward the head ; frequently injure the roots of carrots. The mature insects are a species of small fly. The leaves of the young- carrots turn reddish, and the roots become minutely furrowed and blotched with rusty patches. The carrots when stored for winter use, although sometimes not showing much injury on the outside, may be found to be perforated in every direction by dirty brown burrows. «> 5 Carrot Rust-fly— natural size (1, 5, 7), and enlarged (2, 6, 8). Remedies : Sow late to escape the flies ; spray with kerosene emul- sion solution (one part of the ordinary emulsion to nine of water) ; dust rows with lime, land plaster, or ashes, to which a little coal-oil has been mixed. One application a week should be made through June and into July. Rotation of crops. Celery. (Insects). Celery Caterpillar (Papilio asterias) : The adult is a very hand- some swallow-tailed butterfly. The larva when full-grown is about one and one-fourth inches' long; is pale-green, and marked cross-wise with yellow and black lines. Just behind the head is a pair of horn-like struc- tures, which can emit an unpleasant odor. Remedy : Hand-picking is usually sufficient to control the cater- pillars. (Fungi). Leaf Blight (Cercospora apii) : This fungus disease is sometimes known as "rust," and appears on the leaves first as light spots, which later become brown, and finally yellow. The spots soon increase in size and become irregular in shape, and the plants are seriously injured. The spores can be readily found on the diseased areas. Remedies : Spray with Bordeaux while the young plants are in the frames before transplanting, and repeat at intervals of ten days. It is 14 recommended to use the Ammonicial-copper carbonate solution in the latei sprayings. Leaf Spot (Septoria petroselini, var apii) : Brown spots, studded with minute black spots, appear on the leaves. Celery Blight. (Cercospora \/>ii.)—A, spores through the agency of which the disease spreads ; B, tuft of aerial protruding through a breathing-pore of a leaf ; C, a diseased leaf, showing the brown. Remedies : Same as for leaf blight above. i i Corn. (Insects). Corn-Stalk Borer (Papaipema nitela) : The larvae which belong to the Cutworms bore into the stalks of the young corn plant. The leaves turn yellow, and the stalks die prematurely. It is a general feeder, and attacks potatoes, tomatoes, and many species of weed. Remedy: Destroy the diseased shoots. 15 June Beetle or White Grub (Lachno sterna jusca) : The larva is a large, soft, white grub, about an inch and a half long, and usually curled at the postern end. The pupa stage is passed in the ground. The adult is a large, plump, brown beetle, known as the June "bug." It takes two or three years to develop, and is sometimes very destructive to gard< n crops. Remedies : Late fall plowing destroys the pupae, and exposes diem to their enemies and the weather; rotation of crops prevents the develop- ment of the insect; shaking the adults from trees upon sheets. < !oen Wokm. An ear of corn affected by corn worm. Caterpillars are very variable in their markings. Corn* Ear-worm or Cotton Boll-worm (Heliothis armiger) : The larvae are striped, and may be greenish or reddish in color, and when full-grown about one and one-fourth inches long. The larvae feed on the ears of the sweet corn, and the affected ears are unsightly and unfit for tabic- use It has never been very troublesome to Ontario corn-growers. It also feeds on the fruit of the Tomato. Remedy : Late fall plowing destroys the pupae. 16 Grasshoppers and Locusts : Large jumping- insects, with biting- mouth parts. They feed on asparagus, beet, sweet corn, and many other kinds of garden plants. Remedy : Spray with Paris green solution, arsenical Bordeaux, use poison bait. May Beetle. Lachnosterna fusca, Frcehl. From Riley. Wireworm or Click Beetle : Slender, yellowish-brown worms, with six legs on the front segments of the body. They are hard and wire- like, and when full grown are about an inch long. They require from three to five years to pass through their life-stages. The adults are dark gray click beetles, for when they are placed on their backs they turn over with a click. A Grasshopper or Locust. Remedies : We have no satisfactory remedy for wire-worms. Pois- oned baits, such as sliced potato and clover soaked in Paris green, placed under boards, have given the best results for garden plants; rotation or ciops, and late plowing are helpful. (Fungi). Smut (Ustilago maydis) : Sometimes the cobs of corn become greatly enlarged, and the leaves and staminate tassels have tumor-like growths. 17 These are produced by a fungus called Corn Smut. The growths are filled with black spores, which rest over winter, germinate in the spring, and produce multitudes of secondary spores. These are carried by the wind to new corn plants, which become infected. It has been shown that only young parts of the corn plant can be infected and attacked. a^CE* WlEEWORMS (7, 8, 9) pupa (10)— enlarged; click-beetles (5— natural size; 2, 3, 6— enlarged). {Curtis.) Treatment : Avoid fresh manure ; remove and burn all the smut growths as soon as discovered. Seed treatment is not effective. Rust (Puccinia sorghi) : Reddish or blackish elongated pustles occur on both sides of the leaf. The injury is not often serious. Cucumber. (Insects). Striped Cucumber-Beetle (Diabrotica vittata) : This beetle is well known to the vegetable grower. It is light yellow, with four black lines down the back, and is a little more than two-fifths of an inch in length. The eggs are laid on the stems just below the surface, and when hatched bore into the stem or root. The winter is passed in the adult stage, under any rubbish which will afford shelter. In the spring, as soon as the young cucumbers appear above the ground, the beetles leave their hiber- nating quarters and devour the foliage of the seedlings. It feeds also upon the squash and melon, and is a very difficult insect to overcome. Remedies : Spray with arsenical Bordeaux as soon as plants appear above ground, and repeat ten days later; dust the young plants with Paris green, and land plaster, ashes or lime (one to fifty), or with dr; slakedlime and sulphur, and repeat ten days later ; keep the young vines covered with cheese-cloth, fixed to frames; clean up refuse in the fall. Squash-Bug (Anasa tristis) : The adult insect is a rusty-brown, flat bug, yellow on the under side. It is about three-fifths of an inch in length 2 BULL. 150 18 and has a very offensive odor. It winters in the adult form underneath leaves, boards, etc. The eggs are reddish-brown, and are laid on the under side of the leaves. Remedies : Hand-pick the insects morning and evening, when they are least active ; collect and destroy the egg masses ; spray the vines thoroughly with kerosene emulsion or soap solution to kill the young- Portion of a cucumber vine showing natural infec- tion with B. tracheiphilus. Note the wilted appear- ance of the leaves . bugs ; protect the young plants with cheese-cloth screens ; trap with shingles and pieces of board, under which the bugs will gather, or with early squash plants. Striped Cucumber Beetle (Diabrotim vtttata). From Chittenden. Twelve-Spotted Cucumber Beetle (Diabrotica 1 2-punctata) greenish-yellow beetle, with twelve black spots on its wing covers. 2a bull. 150 A It 19 is about the same size as the striped cucumber beetle, and attacks the same plant. Remedies : Same as for Striped Cucumber Beetle. (Fungi). Downy Mildew (Plasmopara cubensis) : This disease is also com- mon on musk melons. Large yellow spots appear on the leaves, and cause them to shrivel up. The disease is most serious during muggy weather. The spores are borne on peculiar stalks on the under side of the leaf, and are borne to unaffected leaves by wind. As the body of the fungus lives within the tissues of the leaf, it is impossible to effect a cure after the leaf is inoculated. Treatment : Spray with Bordeaux every ten days after the middle of July, giving attention to the under sides of the leaves. This treatment will at least keep the fungus in check. Wilt (Bacillus tracheiphilus) : is a bacterial disease of cucumber, squash, and pumpkin. The leaves of affected vines suddenly wilt, and in a few days shrivel and turn brown. The disease progresses in the vine in the direction of growth, and kills the leaves in succession. Lettuce. (Fungi). Downy Mildew (Bremia lactucce) : Greyish, mouldy areas occur on the under side of the diseased leaves, which show yellowish-brown patches. This fungus thrives well in moist situations. The spores are borne on peculiar branching stalks, constituting the mould. Treatment: Care in draining, watering, and ventilating will do much to control this disease. The Grey Mould (Botrytis vulgaris) : This is very common in green- houses. It causes a rotting of the leaves, upon which it appears as a greyish mould. In rotting leaves are found also minute black bodies (sclerotia), which carry a leaf-rot disease, (Sclerotinia libertiana) called the Drop,over from one crop to another. It may be that the Gray Mould is the summer stage of the Drop disease. Treatment : Care in draining and ventilation ; sterilize the soil with hot water, or add a coating of sterilized sand or earth ; apply coatings of coal ashes, or sulphur and charcoal. Onion. (Insects). Onion-Maggot (Phorbia ceparum) : The adult is a small fly, about half the size of the common house fly. The eggs are laid on the young plants in early spring, and hatch in a few days, when the larvae burrow into the bulbs. When full-grown, they pass into the soil and become 20 pupae, and the adult flies emerge a little later. There are several broods in a season. *gg$£ZB % Oxion Maggot. Remedies : Crude Carbolic Emulsion, as for the Cabbage root mag- got, sprinkle along the rows over the plants once a week ; horse-hoe a fur- row away from the plants, in which nitrate of soda is distributed, and cover with earth; remove diseased plants, and destroy maggots; white hellebore dusted along the rows once a week from the time the young plants appear above ground ; fresh gas lime broadcasted between rows of onions at the rate of two hundred weight to the acre. Thrips (Thrips tabaci) : Very minute insects, about one-twenty-fifth of an inch in length, of a pale yellow color, with darker-colored wings. . Onion Thkips ( Thrips tabaci). a. adult female ; b. antenna of same ; c. young larva or nymph ; d. full grown larva. All enlarged. (After Howard, Division of Entomology, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Yearbook for 1898.) They occur in very large numbers, and the injury is visible in the form of small yellow spots, increasing in size until the tips of the leaves become yellow or brown ; the whole stalk finally having a whitish appear- ance, and, if the weather is wet, the leaves decay. Remedy : Spray with kerosene emulsion, used at the rate of one part of the emulsion to ten of water. 21 (Fungi).. Downy Mildew (Peronospora schleidenii) : This is a common dis- ease of onions. The leaf first shows yellow patches, covered with a greyish mould. Later, the patches increase in size and numbers, and the leaf shrivels and dies. Two kinds of spores are produced, viz., thin- walled summer spores, on the minute branched stalks forming the greyish mould, and thick-walled winter spores (oospores), in the tissues of the leaves killed by the fungus. The summer spores are scattered by the wind during summer, and are the agents in the spread of the disease. Treatment : Rotation of crops is necessary, especially when winter spores are in the infected soil ; removal and burning of diseased plants ; spray with Bordeaux or potassium sulphide (i ounce to 2 gallons of water); dusting the plants with powdered quicklime and sulphur (2 to 1). Tkuk Squash Bug. (Anasa tristis, De G.). a. mature female; b. side view of head, showing beak ; c. abdominal segments of male ; d. same of female ;— a. twice natural size ; b. , <: , d. , slightly more enlarged. After Chittenden, Div. of Entomology, Dep. of Agriculture. Smut (Urocystis Cepulce) : This disease is often troublesome to con- trol. Early in the season leaves of onions may show the black smut masses arranged more or less in lines. The onions are only infected dur- ing their seeding stage from the spores, either attached to the seed or lying in the soil, hence the danger of planting onions in smut-infested soil. Treatment : Destroy and burn diseased plants ; when soil is smut- infested grow seedlings in smut-free soil, then transplant; in infested soil "apply in the drills, per acre, one hundred pounds of sulphur thoroughly mixed with fifty pounds of air-slaked lime; sprinkle seed with formalin solution (1 pound to 30 gallons of water) to kill the attached spores." Black Mould (Macrosporium parasiticum) : This fungus is usually found associated with the Downy Mildew, but it is supposed to be respon- 22 sible for injury to the leaves. The diseased areas are covered with a thick black growth of the fungus. The spores are many-celled and dusky- colored. Treatment : Spray with Bordeaux. Garden Peas. (Insects). Pee-Weevil (Bruchus pisorum) : The eggs are laid on the young- pods as soon as they are formed. The larvae when hatched bore into the pod and destroy the seeds. The winter is passed in the adult stage. Remedies : Sow only seed peas that have been fumigated with car- bon bisulphide. Pea Weevil.— (a) The grub ; (h) ..the pupa, under surface ; (c)' the pupa, upper surface ; (r/)ithe adult weevil. Pea Moth. — (a) A lull grown "worm" or cat- erpillar (enlarged); (b) adult moth with wings expanded (enlarged) ; (c) adult moth with wings closed ; (d) a group of five peas injured by the caterpillar of the pea moth. Pea-Aphis (Nectarophora pisi) : It is a large, soft-bodied, green louse, either with or without wings. Besides the Pea, it feeds on clover, vetches, and, probably, many other leguminous plants. Remedies : Spray with kerosene emulsion or with whale oil soap wash. 23 Pea Moth (Semasia nigricana) : Hairy white caterpillars — when full- grown nearly one-half an inch long. The small adult moth lays its eggs on the pods in the latter part of June or early in July. The caterpillar attacks the peas and renders them unfit for table use. Remedies : Rotation of crops, sow early to escape the moth. (Fungi). Pea Mildew (Erysiphe martii) : Sometimes leaves and vines show a line growth of mould-like threads, followed later by many small dark bodies which bear the resting spores. The summer spores are borne in erect chains on the fine white threads. Affected leaves are small, the vines are weak, and the pods are small and shrivelled. Treatment : Spray with Bordeaux when the Mildew makes its appear- ance, but it is not often necessary to resort to this treatment. Leaf-Spot (Ascochyta pisi) : The lower leaves show yellow blotches, and soon fall off. Occasionally the vines and fruit are attacked. The spores are small, and are borne in little sacs on the blotches. Potato. (Insects). Colorado Potato Beetle (Septinotarsa 10-lineata) : This very familiar pest spends the winter in the ground. They leave their hiber- nating quarters about the middle of May, and commence mating at once. The eggs are laid on the under surface of the leaf, and hatch a few days later. When full-grown, the larvae pass down to the ground, where they change to orange-colored pupae, about three inches below the surface. There are three broods in a season. Remedies : Spray with Paris green-Bordeaux (formula 4-4-40^) or the arsenate-of-lead-Bordeaux, when plants are 2 to 4 inches high, and repeat every ten days or two weeks, and after rains. Flea-Beetle (Epitrix cucumeris) : Very small black beetle, about one-sixteenth of an inch in length. The hind legs are very highly devel- oped, and fitted for leaping. They riddle the leaves of the potato and tomato with little round holes. It is through these holes that the spores of the Early Blight enters the plant. Remedies : Spraying with arsenical Bordeaux ; destroy hibernating quarters by clean culture. Stalk-Weevil (Trichobaris trinotata) : Small, white, legless, grubs, about one-fifth of an inch long. They bore in the stem of the potato and cause the leaves to turn yellow and the stem to die prematurely. The grubs change to pupae within the stems, and a little later the adults emerge from their pupae and remain in the stalks until the following spring*. 24 Remedies : Gather and burn all the stalks in the fall, and the beetles will be destroyed. Aphis (Aphis sp.) : Small, green, soft-bodied plant lice, about one- sixteenth of an inch long. They have sucking mouth parts, and are usually found on the under side of the leaves. They extract the juices from the leaf, causing the leaves to curl up. Remedies : Tobacco water or dilute whale oil soap in the Paris green-Bordeaux. Thb Fruiting Organs of Late Blight : (a) The branching stalks which issue from a breathing pore of the leaf, and the spores ; (b) a simple spore or conidium germinating ; (c) a sporangium with contained zoospores ; (d) a zoospore with its two whips; (e) a zoospore after losing its whips ; (f) a zoospore germinating. Four-Lined Leaf-Bug (Poecilocapsus lineatiis) : A yellow sucking insect, with its wing covers marked with black. It is a little more than one-fourth of an inch in length, and feeds on the foliage of many garden plants. The affected leaves turn brown and curl. Remedies : Spray the young bugs with kerosene emulsion ; add a little whale oil soap to the Bordeaux. 25 (Fungi). Late Blight or Downy Mildew (Phytophthora infestans) : This fun- gus disease is often very destructive in late summer to the potato crop. The margins of the leaves are usually the first portions to become diseased, probably because in periods of excessive moisture the edges are kept longer moist than the inner parts. There is a sharp line of demarcation between the affected and the unaffected areas ; and in moist, warm Early Blight. Late Blight. weather, when the affected areas are enlarging rapidly, there is between the two areas a narrow whitish ring of mildew, which is producing spores in large numbers. The diseased leaves first turn brown, then darker, and finally black. Complete decay of the leaves soon occurs, accompanied by an offensive, yet characteristic, odor. It is usually supposed that the fungus attacks the tubers as well as the stalks and leaves, producing a brown rot, but the mode of infection 26 has not been definitely proven. As no winter spores have yet been observed, it is believed that the threads of the fungus live over winter in the affected dormant tubers, and from these the following- season make their way back to the stalks and leaves. It is probable that the soft rot of potatoes is mainly of bacterial origin. Colorado Potato Beetle (Doryphora decem-lineata, Say.) Treatment : Spray with Bordeaux, every two weeks, beginning- about July ioth, and continuing well into September; plant the more resistant varieties, and avoid wet soil, if possible. Early Blight (Macrosporium solani) : Attacks early potatoes. The plants ripen prematurely, and the tubers are small. The affected leaves become gradually discolored ; have many yellow areas, which are small Cucumber and Potato Flea-beetle. Potato Stalk Weevil. Larva, beetle, and pupa — enlarged. and circular, except where several have run together ; and have a strong tendency to curl. During the later stages of the disease the leaves gradually become brown and shrivelled ; and the stems become yellowish- 27 brown and dry. It is believed that flea-beetles are responsible to some extent for the spread of the disease. Treatment : Spray with Bordeaux and Paris green when the plants are three or four inches high, and repeat every two weeks through June and July. This treatment will control both the fungus and the flea- beetles. Four-lined Leaf Bug. (PsecilocapsusMneatus, Fab), a. adult ; b. Lugger. Fggs after Slingerland. c. immature. Dry Rot (Fusarium oxysporum) : This disease produces a wilt of the stalks, and a rot of the tuber, characterized by a blackening of the ring of fibres and an end-rot. These injuries usually follow the blight; and the rotting is frequently in market potatoes, which may appear quite sound on the outside, but on cutting them open show black or brown spots or parts of rings. Treatment : By spraying to prevent Blight, and selecting seed pota- toes carefully, the injuries may be reduced. Wet Rot (Bacillus sp.) : A common bacterial disease of potatoes, producing soft rot. Radish. (Insects.) Radish-Maggot (Phorbia brassicce) : These are the same maggots that work' in Cabbage roots, and for further information concerning appearance and life-history of this insect, see insects affecting the cabbage. Remedies : Sprinkle carbolic acid emulsion solution along the rows about once a week ; light frames, two or three feet high, enclosed on all sides with cheese cloth, placed over the beds ; dust white hellebore along the rows once a week ; slight applications of nitrate of soda between the rows. (See Onion Maggot.) 28 (Fungi). White Rust (Albugo Candida) : Small, white blisters form on the under side of the leaves ; and when these blisters rupture the summer spores are set free as a white powder. Winter spores are also formed within the leaf, and are liberated the following spring on the decay of the tissues. This fungous disease, although not a serious one, is quite com- mon, and is found on cress, turnip, cabbage, Shepherd's Purse, and mustard. Treatment : Destroy all diseased plants. Downy Mildew (Peronospora parasitica) : This disease occurs also on cabbage, turnip, and other Cruciferous plants. It is found along with the white Rust as whitish, filmy patches on the under surface of the leaf and discolored brownish-yellow spots on the upper surface. Both summer and winter spores are formed, the latter within the leaf. Treatment : Destroy all diseased plants. Damping-Off (Pythium debaryanum) : Damping-Off is a very com- mon disease, affecting the seedling stage of many plants, more especially Cruciferous plants, such as radish, mustard, cabbage, and stock. The affected parts topple over near the surface of the soil, and the stem at that point is shrivelled, weak and black. The disease spreads rapidly in moist situations, and much difficulty is experienced sometimes in growing the plants. Besides summer spores, resting spores are formed, which may remain dormant in the soil for many months. Treatment: Avoid excessive watering of seed-bed, and sow thinly; avoid shade for the seed-bed ; burn all diseased plants ; never use soil that has borne plants diseased with Damping-Off ; in gardens bury the upper layers deeply with the plow. Squash. (See insects affecting the Cucumber.) Tomato. (Insects.) Tomato-Worm (Phlegethontius celeus) : The larva is about three inches long and has a horn-like structure on the last segment. The general color is light green with oblique whitish bands on each side. The eggs are deposited on the leaves of the tomato and potato. The pupa has a long tongue case, and is passed in the ground. Remedy : Hand picking, spray with arsenical poisons. Cutworms : For description of habits and life-history, see insects affecting the cabbage. Remedy : Poisoned bran, sweetened with a little molasses and made into moist balls the size of a plum. Do not use this treatment unless stock and poultry are excluded. 29 30 Corn-Ear Worm : Sometimes found feeding on the fruit of tomato. (For description of larva, see insects affecting corn.) Flea-Beetles (Epitrix cucumeris) : This is the same flea-beetle that causes injury to the potato, ft riddles the leaves of the tomato with little holes, and injures the function of the leaf. For further description of this pest and treatment, see insects affect- ing the potato. (Fungi.) Black Rot (Macrosporium tomato) : This fungus produces roundish, black velvety areas on the fruit of the tomato. The spores are many-celled, and sooty-colored, and are borne on threads covering the diseased spots. Sometimes the leaves and stems are also affected. Treatment : Spray with Bordeaux, beginning when the flowers open, and repeat at intervals of ten days or two weeks. Cut Worms (Agrotis ypstton). After Riley. Blight (Bacillus solanacearum) : This is a bacterial disease and causes the death of the leaves. The bundles of the potatoes and stems become brown or black. The disease is apparently spread to some extent by insects. Treatment :' Keep potato beetles and flea-beetles in check with Bor- deaux and Paris green. Leaf Spot (Septoria lycopersici) : Attacks the leaves, stem, and sometimes the fruit. Angular spots containing minute black fruits appear on the leaves and do considerable injury. Treatment : Spray with Bordeaux a week after transplanting, and again at intervals of two weeks. Scab (Cladosporium fulvum) : Olive-brown, felt-like areas occur on the under side of the leaves and brown discolorations on the upper surface. In severe cases the leaves turn black, shrivel up, and die. Tawny-colored, two-celled spores are produced on the clustered stalks of the fungus of the under surface. Treatment : Spray with Bordeaux early and repeat at intervals of ten days or two weeks. 31 Turnip. (Insects.) Turnip Flea-beetle (Phyllotreta vittata) : A small, shining, black beetle, with a yellowish, wavy stripe on each wing cover, and about 1/16 of an inch in length. It feeds upon the leaves, not only of the radish, but also of the turnip, cabbage, and many other Cruciferous plants. Turnip Flea Beeele. (Enlarged 8 times. ) Remedies: Spray with arsenical poisons; Paris green, mixed with 25 parts of flour, dusted on the plants while the dew is on; Bordeaux acts as a repellant, and is recommended. FUNGICIDES AND INSECTICIDES. Formulae. L Bordeaux Mixture. Copper sulphate (blue stone) 4 pounds. Fresh stone lime 4 pounds. Water 40 gallons. (1) Make a stock solution of bluestone by dissolving 40 pounds in warm water in a barrel and add water to make up to 40 gallons. Every gallon of this solution in first barrel contains one pound of bluestone. (2) Into a second barrel put 40 pounds of fresh stone lime, and add with stirring small quantities of water to slake it. When fully slaked make up to 40 gallons by adding water. Every gallon of milk of lime in this second barrel contains one pound of lime. 32 To prepare the Bordeaux, empty four gallons of bluestone solu- tion into the spray tank or barrel, which already should have 25 or 30 gallons of water in it; stir the milk of lime thoroughly and empty four gallons of it through the strainer into the spray barrel with constant stirring ; then add water to make up to 40 gallons. Any one of several arsenical compounds may be used along with the Bordeaux to form a combination insecticide and fungicide. The following are among the best : (a) Paris Green. Add four to six ounces to 40 gallons of Bordeaux. (b) Ar senile of Soda. Boil together for 15 minutes one pound white arsenic, four pounds sal soda, and two gallons water, until a clear solu- tion is obtained. Add one to one and one-half quarts to 40 gallons of Bordeaux. (c) Arsenite of Lime. Boil together for 45 minutes one pound arsenic, two pounds fresh lime, and one gallon of water. Add one quart of this solution to 40 gallons of Bordeaux. (d) Arsenate of Lead. Put four ounces of arsenate of soda in two quarts of water in a wooden pail and eleven ounces acetate of lead in two quarts of water in another pail. When dissolved mix together and add to 40 gallons of Bordeaux. (3) Never mix the concentrated stock solutions together. If the milk of lime and bluestone are mixed in the concentrated form, just as they are taken from the stock solution, a precipitate of a flaky nature will soon settle out, and either fall to the bottom or clog the nozzle. (4) Test the Bordeaux to find out whether sufficient milk of lime has been added. This is most easily done by means of the ferrocyanide test. A saturated solution of this substance can be purchased at any druggists for a few cents. In testing, place some of the Bordeaux, which has been thoroughly stirred, into a saucer, and add a few drops of the ferrocyanide. If sufficient lime has been used, no discoloration will appear, but if insufficient, a deep dark brown color will be pro- duced. (5) Always strain the milk of lime to prevent gritty particles from clogging the nozzles. (6) Use a fine nozzle ; do not soak or drench the plants. (7) The stock solutions will keep, but the Bordeaux mixture becomes useless after standing for two or three days. II. Resin=Bordeaux Mixture. Pulverized resin 5 pounds. Concentrated lye 1 pound. Fish oil 1 pint. Water 5 gallons. Place the oil, resin and one gallon hot water in an iron kettle and heat till resin softens, add the lye and stir thoroughly; then add 33 four gallons hot water and boil till a little will mix with cold water and give a clear, amber-colored liquid. Add water to make up five gallons. Keep this as stock solution. For resin-Bordeaux, add ten gallons water to two gallons of stock solution, then mix this with 40 gallons Bordeaux. This mixture is very adhesive to smooth leaves ; has been used successfully against asparagus rust. III. Ammoniacal-Copper Carbonate Solution. Copper carbonate 5 ounces. Strong ammonia, sufficient to dissolve the copper carbonate, usually about 3 pints. Water 4° gallons. Mix the copper carbonate into a paste with a little water, add the ammonia, and when the copper carbonate is completely dissolved pour the deep blue solution into the water. Recommended for late sprayings against fungi to prevent disfigura- tion of fruit or leaves. IV. Potassium Sulphide (Liver of Sulphur.) (Used to control Mildews.) Dissolve four ounces in eight gallons of water. V. Flowers of Sulphur. (Used in California against Asparagus rust.) VI. Formalin (40 per cent. Formaldehyde.) Put one-half pint into 15 gallons of water. Used for prevention of bean anthracnose, potato scab. VII. Cook's Carbolic Soap Wash. Hard soap, one pound, or soft soap 1 quart. Crude carbolic acid 1 pint. Water (boiling) 1 gallon. Dissolve the soap in the boiling water ; while still hot add the car- bolic acid ; emulsify thoroughly. This is the stock solution. For use, dilute with 30 to 50 times its bulk of water. Very effective against root-maggots of cabbage, radish and onion. VIII. Paris Green Mixture. (Liquid.) (For Leaf-eating Insects.) Paris green 1 pound. Water 1 50 gallons. Lime, freshly slacked 2 pounds. Or, Paris Green Mixture. (Dry.) Paris green 1 pound. Flour or dust ...100 pounds. 3 BULL. 150 34 IX. Poison Bait. (For Cutworms, Wireworms and Grasshoppers in gardens and cornfields.) Wheat bran 5° pounds. Molasses (any kind) - quarts. Paris green (good grade) i pound. Water (Enough to make a thick mash.) Handfuls of the bait are scattered about the garden at the base of the plants and among the corn rows in the evening. Poisoned clover, slices of potato, etc., may be used effectively. X. Hellebore. White hellebore (fresh) i ounce. Water 2 gallons. XL Pyrethrum, or Insect Powder. Pyrethrum powder (fresh) 1 ounce. Water 3 gallons. Or, Pyrethrum powder 1 ounce. Flour (cheap) 5 ounces. Mix thoroughly, allow to stand over night in a closed box, then dust on plants through cheese-cloth. XII. Kerosene Emulsion (for Bark-lice and Plant lice.) Hard soap, half-pound, or soft soap 1 quart. Boiling water (soft) 1 gallon. Coal oil 2 gallons. After dissolving the soap in the water, add the coal oil and stir well for five to* ten minutes. When properly mixed, it will adhere to glass without oiliness. A syringe or pump will aid much in this work. In using, dilute with from nine to fifteen parts of water. XIII. Tobacco Decoction. Refuse tobacco 2 pounds. Water 5 gallons. Boil the mixture for 30 minutes or more, until a dark brown tea- colored solution is obtained. Keep it covered until cool. It may then be used undiluted for spraying infested plants. The addition of one pound of whale-oil soap to each 50 gallons increases the effectiveness. XIV. Whale Oil Soap. For plant lice, one pound in seven gallons hot water. LIST OF BULLETINS Published by the Ontario Department of Agriculture, Toronto. >erial No. Date. 116 Aug. 1901 117 Jan. 1902 118 119 120 121 Jan. April M ay June 1902 1902 1902 1902 122 June 1902 123 July 1902 124 Dec. 1902 125 Dec. 1902 126 April 190:3 127 May 1903 128 Aug. 1903 129 130 Dec. Dec. 1903 1903 131 Dec. 1903 132 Dec. 1903 133 134 Dec. June 1903 1904 135 Jime 1904 136 Aug. 1904 137 Aug. 1904 138 139 Feb. Feb. 1905 1905 140 Feb. 1905 141 April 1905 142 143 144 May June June 1905 190f) 190o 145 June 1905 146 147 Nov. Feb. 1905 148 Mar. 1900 149 July 1906 1906 Title. Author. The Hessian Fly in Ontario Wm. Lochhead. Pasteurization of Milk for Butter-Making.. . {p/c. Harrinon. Yeast and its Household Use F. C. Harrison. Ventilation of Farm Stables and Dwellings. J. B. Reynolds. Bitter Milk and Cheese F. C. Harrison. Ripening of Cheese in Cold Storage compared i H. H. Dean. with ripening in ordinary Curing Rooms \F. C. Harrison. Spray Calendar Wm. Lochhead. _ , , _ . _, .. (J. B. Reynolds. Cold Storage of Fruit { | j j [ | lUt Nature Study, or Stories in Agriculture Staff, O. AC. Roup (A Disease of Poultry) | Tf ' g trc { t Peas and Pea Weevil \ Wm ; j^nhead. Farm Poultry W. R. Graham . _. „. , . „ . . /F. C. Harrison. The U eeda of Ontario { Wm Lodlhead . Bacon Proline! ion G. E. Day. Bacterial Content of Cheese cured at different /F. C. Harrison. Temperatures 1 Wm. T. Connell. Ripening of Cheese in Cold Storage compared |H. H. Dean. with Ripening in Ordinary Curing Room JR. Hamrart'. ... . . _. , J F. C. Harrison. Roup ; An Experimental Study \ jj g rre it Present Condition of San Jose Scale in Ontario Wm. Lochhead. II i ii tn in Making Nature Collections in Public and High Schools W. H. Muldrew. „,. , < , ■ »i • n 1 H. H. Dean. The Cream-Gathering Creamery \ } A McFeeters . Some Bacterial Diseases of Plants prevalent in J F. C. Harrison. < Intario IB. Barlow. A Bacterial Disease of Cauliflower and Allied Plants F. C. Harrison. The Composition of Ontario Feeding Stuffs.. W. P. Gamble. An Experimental Shipment of Fruit to Winni- ] ieg J. B. Reynolds. The Results of Field Experiments with Farm Crops C. A. Zavitz. Gas-Producing Bacteria ami Their Effect on Milk and its Products F. C. Harrison. Outlines of Nature-Study Wm. Lochhead. Dairy School Bulletin Dairy School. Apple Culture H. L. Hutt. D . n f H. H. Dean. I .utter Preservatives j R Harcourt. 1'ses of Fruits, Vegetables and Honey Fruits K( commended for Ontario Planters. . . Fruit Ex. Stations. Experiments with Nodule-forming Bacteria.. < g' Baj-io^" 8011 ' The Swine Industry The Common Fungus and Insect |Peste of i Wm. Lochhead Growing Vegetable Crops L T. D. Jarvis ONTARIO DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Ontario Agricultural College BULLETIN 151 FARM POULTRY WITH THE RESULTS OF SOME EXPERIMENTS IN Poultry Houses and Fattening Chickens BY W. R. GRAHAM. B. S. A. Poultry Manager and Lecturer PUBLISHED BY THE ONTARIO DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Toronto. Ontario. October. 1906 Printed by L. K. CAMERON, Printer to the King's Most Excellent Majesty. BULLETIN 151. OCTOBER, 1906. Ontario Agricultural College and Experimental Farm. FARM POULTRY, WITH THE RESULTS OF SOME EXPERI- MENTS IN POULTRY HOUSES AND FATTENING CHICKENS. By W. R. Graham, B.S.A., Poultry Manager and Lecturer. This Bulletin is intended to give information to farmers and others, on general matters pertaining to the keeping of poultry. It also contains the results of a few experiments which have been conducted at this institution in fattening chickens for the home and export market ; also the results of an experiment with poultry houses. CONSTRUCTION OF POULTRY HOUSES. We find poultry thriving and yielding good returns in so many different styles of houses, that it is very difficult to lay down any hard and fast rules. The tendency at present is towards cheaper houses, with better ventilation. The hot-house style of housing poultry during the winter has not been satisfactory, many of the houses being damp, and the air in them anything but agreeable. Disease has been quite common ; and the results in many cases have been disappointing. ; 4 ^ Ja^HK* ^^ihe:iM is ■E i( JS-£- 1 ra 1 1 " ■hbe MHMyujn&.^'^mBHBBWHHV ~j£ $i*e*:'££&& --'•• '■>.:>.! '.;■.-:;=■/.'- *>.:? -■■": : ■ v-.-:j-. /,: ■ f- iv> x-: : ;•; yj^ ? Fig. 3. Cross section of House No. 2, showing the curtains in position for the day, etc. closing them in the fall of the year until the water would freeze in the drink tin. The fresh air treatment gave us healthier and more vigorous birds, and, as far as I can tell from the records, equally as many eggs, which were better eggs for incubating purposes. We tried a few fowl in a small colony house constructed of single ply boards, the cracks of which were battened. This house gave fairly good results as regards egg production and hatchable eggs. Two years ago four houses, representing different styles of popu- lar poultry houses, were constructed. These houses were stocked with birds representing, as nearly as possible, the same strains of the breed. The breeds used were White Wyandottes and Buff Orpingtons, the one a rose combed breed, the other a single combed breed. 4 The houses are of equal size as regards floor space. Each house is 24 feet long and 12 feet wide. The house is divided by a wire and board partition, making two pens each 12 feet square. The pens will accommodate 20 to 25 birds each, or about 50 to the house. The cut shows fairly well the appearance as regards windows, etc., of the house. The roosting quarters of each house are very similar in construction. A drop-board is used which is constructed of matched dressed lumber. Y\.UU Milk— 40 lbs., at 10c. per cwt 4-OU Wheat— 34.8 lbs., at $1.13 per cwt • &- 62 Total 83 - 82 Eggs laid, 13 dozen and 10 eggs ; cost per dozen, 6.15 cents. May 22nd to June 22nd. Andalusians: Milk— 40 lbs., at 10c. per cwt 4.00 cents. Oats— 3 lbs., at $1.00 per cwt a-WJ Wheat— 35.437 lbs., at $1.13 per cwt 40.U4 Mash— 40 lbs., at 90c. per cwt 36.UU Bone— 11.375 lbs., at $1.00 per cwt 11-37 u Total 94.41 Eggs laid, 18 dozen and 2; cost per dozen, 5.06 cents. June 22nd to July 22nd- Barred Rocks : Wheat— 26.375 lbs., at $1.13 per cwt 29.80 cents. Oats— 6.25 lbs., at $1.00 per cwt 6.25 Mash — 41.75 lbs., at 90c. per cwt 37.5/ Milk — 41 lbs., at 10c. per cwt 4.1 Bone— 1 lb., at $1.00 per cwt 1-00 (< Total 78.72 Eggs laid, 13 dozen and 10; cost per dozen, 5.69 cents. (< 12 June 22nd to July 22nd. Andalusians : Wheat^35.625 lbs., at $1.13 per cwt 40.25 cents. Oats— 6.25 lbs., at $1.00 per cwt 6.25 Mash— 40 lbs., at 90c. per cwt 36.00 Milk— 40 lbs., at 10c. per cwt 4.00 Bone— 1 lb., at $1.00 per cwt 1.00 Total cost 87.50 Eggs laid, 16 dozen and 1 ; cost per dozen, 5.44 cents. July 22nd to August 22nd. Barred Rocks : Wheat— 32.625 lbs., at $1.13 per cwt 36.86 cents. Oats— 9 lbs., at $1.00 per cwt 9.00 Mash— 35.9 lbs., at 90c. per cwt 32.31 Milk— 40 lbs., at 10c. per cwt 4.00 Bone— 2 lbs., at $1.00 per cwt 2.00 <( it <( (C It Total cost 84.17 Eggs laid, 14 dozen and 1 ; cost per dozen, 6.2 cents. July 22nd to August 22nd. Andalusians: Wheat— 27.25 lbs., at $1.13 per cwt 30.79 cents. Oats— 14.875 lbs., at $1.00 per cwt 14.875 Mash-^0.5 lbs., at 90c. per cwt 36.45 Milk— 40 lbs., at 10c. per cwt 4.00 Bone— 3 lbs., at $1.00 per cwt 3.00 Total cost 89.115 " Eggs laid, 14 dozen and 9 ; cost per dozen, 6 cents. Average cost per dozen for Rocks, 6.02 cents per dozen. Average cost per dozen for Andalusians, 5.34 cents per dozen. Housing. — The housing of fowl was discussed in a previous para- graph. It is well to remember, however, that the house should be clean, the dropping-s being- removed at least twice a week ; it should also be well aired and kept dry, to avoid dampness and foul, stagnant air. Feeds and Feeding. — The main points to be considered in feeding are, that there be a good supply of green food, meat food, and grain, the latter both ground and whole. It is also necessary to feed so as to induce birds to take exercise. In winter, green food is supplied by feeding cabbage, turnips, or other roots, pulped or whole, and by feed- ing steamed cut clover or clover leaves in the mash. Meat food is supplied in the form of ground green bone, cooked offal, such as beef heads, etc., and in the form of animal meal, beef scrap. In Ontario the ground bone is perhaps the best and cheapest, where one has a bone mill; where not, beef heads, livers, etc., give good results. Animal meal, dried blood, etc., are good foods, but in many cases are more expensive than the others mentioned. However, they are very useful during the hot weather, when it is almost impossible to use fresh meat. Partially decayed meat should not be used, as it is not healthful. Wheat is, undoubtedly, the most popular grain food for fowl in Ontario. It is certainly a good food, and is very much relished by poultry. Corn is not used so much in Ontario as in New England States. There it appears to be used quite freely in both summer and winter 13 feeding- of fowls. It is used whole, ground, and cracked, the meal being used principally in the mash foods. Cracked corn is used largely for young chicks and fowls when scattered in the litter. The whole corn is rather large and conspicuous; and, when in the litter, does not give enough exercise. I am of the opinion that corn can be used in portions of Ontario, where it is grown extensively, much more freely than it has been heretofore. Corn is a heating and fattening food, and is, therefore, best adapted for winter use. It is considered by many, when fed in large quantity, to make the hens fat; yet it is used extensively by many progressive poultrymen with little or no evil effects. Oats should be a first-class food for poultry ; but, owing to the large percentage of hull, they are not relished by chickens, and for this reason they are somewhat indigestible. When ground they are used pretty freely in mash food ; also the rolled and granulated oat- meals are used for feeding young chicks. The ground oat, without the hull, is used extensively for fattening fowl. We have found that oats soaked in water for 24 hours increases their palatibility. Barley, either whole or ground, is very good. It has rather too much hull, but otherwise it is a satisfactory food. It is considered by many to be next to wheat in point of value. Buckwheat is very popular as an egg-producer in districts where it is grown extensively. Some difficulty is at times experienced when first feeding it to fowls in getting them to eat it, but this is usually overcome in a day or so, if other feeds are withheld. Boiling the buck- wheat will sometimes start the birds to eat it. After the birds once get accustomed to its appearance, it is much relished by them. Ground buckwheat is an excellent food to use in a fattening ration. It is somewhat like corn in its fattening properties and therefore it is bet- ter for winter than summer use. Shorts and wheat bran are both used extensively in making mashes, or soft foods. They are excellent foods to use in maintaining the health of the flock. Dry Feeding. The tendency at the present time is to feed dry grain and to use no wet mash foods. It has been claimed by some writers that mash foods, while tending to force growth, and possibly egg production, does not tend to produce good eggs for hatching purposes ; that is to say, the mash is more or less of a forcing food. In the production of eggs, the number produced is probably as large if not larger where mashes are used, but the hatchability of the eggs is not as high. During the last year or two we have not fed very many mashes to our breeding birds, but have fed in place sprouted grain. So far as we can see at the present time the sprouting does not improve the feeding qualities of the grain very much, with the exception of oats. The palatability of oats is increased considerably. We have made the oats equally as palatable by soaking them in warm water about six hours. At the present time our plan of feeding is to feed whole grain in the litter 14 in the morning, using about one to two pounds for twenty birds, the latter amount when they are laying heavy. At noon feed mangels, clover hay and meat food in the winter time ; if we have no meat a small quantity of grain is scattered in the litter on the floor. In the summer time no grain or feed of any description is given. At night they are fed all the sprouted grains, either oats or barley, sometimes wheat, they will eat. During very cold weather in the winter they are fed occasionally corn, either in the morning or evening. Where this is given it is scattered in the litter. Those who adopt the dry method of feeding entirely, usually feed a mixture of ground grains dry, from hoppers or troughs. We have not as yet done much experimental work with these methods of feeding, but may do so during the coming winter, unless something unforeseen prevents us. Feeding When Wet Mashes are Used. The general method of feeding is to give a mash of mixed ground grains moistened with water or milk, in the morning; a little whole grain scattered in the straw covering the floor, at noon ; and all the whole grain they will eat at night. This latter meal is usually fed in the straw. Some poultry men adopt the plan of not feeding the mash until evening. We have been practising this plan for some time, and we like it very well. The objection to the former plan is that the hen is likely to become gorged with food early in the morning, and thus take to the roost for the rest of the day, which is usually followed by hens becoming too fat, and the egg record becoming small ; but, not- withstanding, many successful poultrymen use this method to advan- tage. The objection to feeding the mash at night is that it becomes quickly digested, and the bird has not sufficient food to last it during the long winter night; but this objection can be overcome by giving a little whole grain after the mash at night. Some poultrymen feed their fowls but twice a day, morning and evening, and get very good results ; but I favor feeding three times a day. Our plan is somewhat as follows : — Early in the morning the fowls are given half a handful each of whole grain. This is buried in the litter on the floor. Thus the fowls get exercise (a very necessary thing) in searching for it and at the same time keep themselves warm. At noon about two handsful of grain are given to a dozen hens in the litter ; they are also given all the roots they will eat, either pulped or whole, as fowl relish mangels, sugar beets and turnips. Cabbage also — a very good green food — is sometimes given. About four o'clock in the afternoon they are fed a mash composed of equal parts of bran, shorts, oat-chop and corn-meal (during cold weather) ; and to this is added about 10 per cent, of ani- mal meal if we have not cut green bone or cooked meat. These foods are thoroughly mixed together in the dry state, after which is added steeped clover, which has been prepared by getting a bucket of clover leaves, or cut clover hay, and scalding it with boiling water. This 15 is done early in the morning, and the bucket is kept covered with a thick sack throughout the day. This will be quite warm at night, if it has been kept in a warm place. There is usually sufficient liquid to moisten the meal that has been mixed. Our aim is to have about one-third of the ration, in bulk, of clover. After the mash a small amount of whole grain is fed in the straw. There is — and should be — a plentiful supply of good, pure water within easy reach at all times. Natural and Artificial Incubation. Whether it will pay to buy incubators and brooders depends largely on one's circumstances. Where chicks are wanted in considerable num- bers earlier than April 15th, an incubator becomes practically a neces- sity, as it is seldom that hens become broody in numbers until after the 1 st of April. Again, where one wishes to hatch more than 150 chicks, an incubator is in many cases cheaper and better than the natural method. It is also a necessity where one is breeding from the non-setting varieties. There are numerous illustrations of chicks being raised in large numbers by the natural method in the States of Rhode Island and Massachusetts, particularly in the former State. Where this method is followed, the chicks are hatched largely during the months of May and June; and where from 500 to 1,500 laying hens are kept, there is little difficulty in getting a sufficient number of broody hens. Those who are keeping large numbers of hens appear to be well satisfied with the natural method ; but there can be no doubt that the number of incubators in use is increasing from year to year. Hen and Incubator.- — As to results, I am of the opinion that on the average, the incubator will hatch as many chicks as the hen. There is no doubt that some individual hens hatch a much higher percentage than a machine ; but when we put 240 eggs into a machine and the same number under 20 hens, our experience is that we get about equal results in the number of chicks hatched. The average hatch is probably one chicken from every two eggs set. This, of course, varies with the different seasons, also with the percentage of fertile eggs, and the strength of the germ. We have found during the months of February and March, when the ground is covered with snow and the fowls are closely housed, that the percentage of fertile eggs is small, and that the germs are very weak. Under such conditions we have very poor hatches and chicks that are very hard to rear. Much better eggs are obtained in December and early January, or when the fowls get out into the fresh air and are able to pick some grass. Thus it will be seen that, as a general rule, as the percentage of fertile eggs increases, the vitality of the germ increases, the per- centage hatched is larger and the mortality among the young chicks smaller. For example, we would expect to get a much larger percent- age hatch of the fertile eggs from eggs that were 90 per cent, fertile than from those that were 60 per cent, fertile; and, moreover, we would 16 figure on raising a much larger percentage of chicks from the former eggs than from the latter, owing to the chicks being stronger and having greater vitality. Setting the Hen. — It is generally agreed that, in order to secure a good hatch, the hen must be placed where other hens are not likely to disturb her; for, as a rule, we seldom get good hatches where other hens lay in the nest with the sitter. Some farmers do not set a hen until one becomes broody on a nest where no others lay, which often necessitates late chicks. The difficulty can be overcome by mak- ing a new nest for the broody hen. Get a box about twelve inches square and six inches deep; put some earth, or an overturned sod, in the bottom, taking care to have the corners very full so that no eggs can roll out from the hen and get chilled ; next put on about two inches of straw or chaff ; and then put a few earthen eggs into the nest. Place the nest in some pen where nothing can disturb the hen, and put her on after dark. Feed and water must be within easy reach and a dust- bath should also be convenient. If the hen is sitting quiet the next day, you will be safe in putting the eggs under her. In our experi- ence we get 90 per cent, of the hens to sit by following this method. It should be remembered that the hen will be in better condition if dusted with insect powder when set, and also a few days before the hatch comes off. This will usually keep the lice in check, especially if some tansy or mint leaves are used in making the nest. Incubators. — There is really very little known about the running of incubators. Some people succeed in hatching a large percentage, while others, under exactly the same circumstances, fail. The exact reason why, we do not know. This much, however, can be said ; the machine should not be placed in a direct draught, nor yet in a build- ing where there is a lack of ventilation. Fresh air is one of the most important things in an incubator room. I have known machines to hatch in well-ventilated cellars, kitchens, dining-rooms and bed-rooms. Hardly any two people agree as to which is the best place to operate the machine. As a general rule, it is wise to follow the manufacturer's directions. I find that different makes of incubators reouire different treatment, both as to temperature and otherwise, and we generally get the best results when running closely to the directions. Where possible, the temperature in the room should vary but little; for, if it varies 30 to 40 degrees in 24 hours, it is very hard to keep an even temperature in the machine; and it is absurd to expect that the machine will not vary with such changes in the surrounding tempera- ture. We are conducting a large number of experiments with incubators. The results of these experiments will be published in detail in another bulletin to be issued at an early date. • Rearing Chickens. Experience and observation has led me to believe that chickens, in order to do their best, require to be grown on fairly good land, prob- ably a clay loam or a sandy loam being the best. I have never been 17 successful nor yet have I seen good flocks of chickens grown on very light sand. Chickens require dry ground at times, yet, at the same time, a rather moist location near by renders a good foraging ground. Young chickens require plenty of ground to range over; some con- venient shade, such as fruit trees, or growing corn or artichokes; tender green food and insects. Many growers of large numbers of chickens on limited areas crowd the birds far too much, the result being a large proportion of unthrifty chicks. These last mentioned chickens have been very much in evidence on nearly all the large, intensive poultry plants that I have visited. The chicks frequently outgrow these con- ditions to such an extent that they are very difficult to pick out when mature, but are readily seen when about one-half grown. Many growers appear to believe that as long as a chicken is alive it is a good one, but this is folly. I believe by breeding from such stock the vitality will gradually decrease until we shall reach a point where eggs are practi- cally unhatchable. Chickens when taken from the nest or incubator should be placed on ground upon which no other chickens have ranged that season. The range or run for a chick during the first four weeks of its life need not be large, but it should be fresh. Many make the mistake of putting late hatched chickens on old tough sod, the green grass (if there is any) being so tough that the chicks cannot break it, and often the grass too thick to admit of a chick catching an insect before it is out of reach. I much prefer a cul- tivated piece of ground. A little tender lettuce, or rape, or even weeds for green food are preferable to summer sod, or grass. But after the middle of May the cultivated land gives better results than grass land. A corn field well cultivated appears to be nearly an ideal place for raising late hatched chicks. Chickens hatched in an incubator can be reared either with hens or with a brooder. Some people are able to make good hatches with their incubators ; but they are unable to rear the chickens in brooders. In this case I would advise the use of broody hens for mothers ; and the same would apply to those who have an incubator, but do not care to invest in a brooder. The best plan I know of to get the broody hens to take the chicks, is to give the hen two or three eggs out of the incubator on the 18th or 19th day and allow her to hatch them. When your incubator hatch is over take a dozen or fifteen chickens and put them under the hen after dark. Even if they happen to differ in color from those she has hatched, she will mother them all the same. If you give them to her in the day time she may not do so. Never neglect to give the hen a thorough dusting before giving her any eggs. If there is one thing more than another that requires careful attention in rearing young chickens, it is to keep them free from lice. If lice get upon them, from the hen or elsewhere, a large proportion of them will be almost sure to die. 2 Bull. 151. 18 0) be o IS o o 4-4 tfl .0 b/3 rt tfl s c « 2 .0 >> he £ ■c £ 3 _ — *o 03 oi .0 O a o3 ^2 tfl +-> I- ■•' 1 1 ; _1 18; ! A- o c P. O O a o a3 &4 be 03 *o3 w v,' a, o o3 .0 'c o- 04 03 75 v (L) c ^ .0 *0 U5 -3 T3 2'S rt .S .S -4 •-" O 03 tfl tfl 4_, o v a o tfl O r^ ... V .0 O to £ - ^ « .2 •-> ^_, 04 O 04 o v H 2a Bull. 151. 19 There are many good brooders upon the market which are well described in the manufacturers' catalogues; hence a description here is unnecessary. Personally, I am in favor of a three-compartment brooder, as it admits of keeping the chicks in near the heat when young, and on stormy days. The brooder lamp should always be arranged so as to give little chance of fire. If the brooder can be placed in a small portable house, it is a good plan, as the brooder is thus protected from stormy cold winds in the early spring ; also from the heat later on. The house protects the chicks from rain, and serves as a roosting coop after they become too large to stay in the brooder. Chicks should not be fed until they are at least 36 hours old. It is a serious mistake to feed them earlier. Too early feeding is the cause of indigestion and bowel trouble in many cases. We try to keep the temperature of the brooder between 90 and 95 degrees at the chick level throughout the first week. After the first week the temperature is gradually lowered, generally speaking, about one degree a day. When the chicks are put into the brooder, it is well to remember that every 15 chicks will raise the temperature of the brooder one degree. Be careful not to get your brooder too hot, nor yet so cool as to chill the chicks. This is very important, especially during the first ten days. The floor should be covered with clover chaff before the chicks are put into the brooder. Luke-warm water should also be put into the brooder for drink before the chickens are taken from the machine. I have had best success in starting young chicks on hard-boiled eggs, finely chopped, shell included, and bread crumbs — about four parts by weight of bread to one of eggs. This is fed dry. After the first two days we begin to give an occasional feed of seed chick-food, which is made as follows : — Cracked wheat 25 parts. Granulated oat meal 15 Millett seed 12 Small cracked corn 10 Small cracked peas 6 Broken rice 2 Rape seed 1 Grit (chicken size) 10 This can be used for the first feed and continued through the first eight to ten weeks with good results. We aim to feed the chicks five times a day. Generally after the first few days, there are three feeds a day of this chick-food, one of bread and milk (the bread being squeezed dry and crumbled), and one of whole wheat, or a mash made of equal parts of bran, shorts and corn meal, to which has been added ten per cent, of animal meal or blood meal. If we can secure fresh liver and get it boiled, this is generally given twice a week, and the animal meal is then omitted from the mash. If the chicks cannot get out to run 20 about, the seed chick-food may be scattered in the chaff, and the little chicks will work away most of the day for it. This gives them exer- cise, which is a necessity in rearing- chicks. If there is no green food to reach, it must be supplied. Lettuce is excellent. Sprouted grains are very good, as is also root sprout, cabbage, rape, etc. When the chicks get to be about eight weeks of age, we usually feed about three times a day — the mash food in the morning and whole wheat and cracked corn at noon and night. If we are anxious to force the chicks, we give two feeds of mash and increase the animal meal a little. Chicks hatched at a season of the year when they can range out of doors need not be fed as often or as carefully as described above. During the winter season where chicks are reared in doors too liberal feeding often causes leg weakness, etc. Fig. 9. Coop A.— Each side of roof 2i in. by 30 in. ; bottom 2 ft. 4 in. We have used during the season of 1905 the hopper plan of feed- ing chicks ' during the spring and summer months with good success. We have tried placing a hopper or trough of chick feed, made of grains as previously described (seed chick feed), in a coop along with the hen and chicks and keeping the supply constant in or near the coop, from the day the chicks were put out until well grown, with most satis- factory results. Where chickens have a good range about the fields of the average farm I know of no better plan of feeding chicks. The hoppers may be made of any size or shape so long as the supply of grain is constant and the supply large enough to last for about one week. A hopper which slopes from both sides will feed better than one with a slope to but one side. Where the hopper plan is adopted on the farm, the labor problem is very much reduced. This plan can be carried out with chicks in brooders, but for the first ten days or two weeks I prefer feeding the chicks about five times daily, after which time the hoppers are used. Water should be given daily in a clean dish. We have had chicks with hens do extra well when turned in a large corn field with a hopper of grain constantly near the coop, but no water. These birds were a long distance from a water supply, hence they were tried without water 21 with no bad results. I would prefer giving water if the supply is clean and constant. The chicks are taken from the out-door brooders at from six to eight weeks of age, according to the weather. A small coop (Fig. 9) is set in front of the brooder, so that the chickens cannot get to the brooder entrance, the result being that they get into the coop A. After a day or two take away your brooder, and the coop can then be moved daily to fresh ground. This will keep the coop clean. When the chicks get too large for the coop A, which will be in about ten weeks, they are put into coop B. (Fig. 10. j The same process is gone througn with coop B. It is set in front of coop A, so as to obstruct the en- trance: and the chicks then go into the coop B, and soon take to the roost. Coop B will roost 20 chicks until full grown. Try to keep your chickens roosting in the open air as long as possible. Never house them in close, stuffy houses. If you do they will be sure to go wrong, become weak, and be of little or no value, either as breeders or ei;g-producers. Where an indoor brooder is used in a colony house, the brooder is removed from the house and the chickens roost in colony house until they are ready to market. Fig 10. Coop B.— Length, tj ft. : width, 2 ft. 6 in. : height in front, 2 ft. 4 in. : height at back, 18 in. We use mostly colony houses similar to the one to the left of the picture. This house could be improved by having a portion of the front made of cotton. The house is eight feet long by six feet wide. It is six feet six inches high in front and four feet six inches at the back. Two 4x4 scantling are placed under the building and act as runners so that the building may be moved about. The door is at the back of the building and is four feet wide ; this allows a brooder to be taken in or out. Breeding Market Fowls. When looking over dressed poultry in some of the exporter's shops, I have often thought how easy it would be to improve the appearance of much of the ordinary poultry, and some of that which is specially fattened, if the birds were bred to a proper type. I have spent much 22 time in examining different types of birds, alive and dressed, and in observing the feeding capacity of certain types ; but it would take years to arrive at definite conclusions on these points. I am, however, of the opinion that one of the most important things to be sought after is constitution. This may have no actual market value, but it certainly has much to do with the bird's ability to grow and put on flesh. What we want is a good feeder, and an economical producer. Gen- erally, a bird with a short, stout, well-curved beak, a broad head (not too long), and a bright, clear eye, has a good constitution. And I have noticed that when a bird has a long, narrow beak, a thin, long comb and head, and an eye somewhat sunken in the head, it is usually lack- ing in constitution. Such a bird is likely to have a narrow, long body and long legs, upon which it seldom stands straight. There are some exceptions to this rule ; yet, generally speaking, if a bird has a good IfcV * • iw-^je Fig. 11. Colony houses used for rearing chicks. Artichokes growing as shade for the chickens. head the chances are favorable for a good body ; and, if it has a poor head the chances are against it. I have frequently noticed in the rose- comb breeds, such as Wyandottes, that a good-shaped one is seldom found with a long, narrow comb. The neck should be moderately short and stout, indicating vigor. The breast is the most important point in a market chicken. It should be broad, moderately deep; and, if broad, it will present a fine appear- ance and appear well-fleshed. It is quite possible that a broad, deep breast will carry more meat than a moderately deep breast of the same width ; yet there is no doubt that the latter will present much the better appearance, and sell more quickly and at a higher price in the market. The breast bone should be well covered with flesh to the very tip. 23 When considering- the length of breast, we must try to have it come well forward (see Fig. 12), and not be cut off at an angle, as in Fig. 13- The body, in general, should present the appearance of an oblong when the head, neck, and tail are removed. We frequently see birds that are very fiat in front, and cut up behind, as in Fig. 14. Chickens of this class have a very short breast; and, if the breast happens to be deep, as it is in this bird, the chicken Fig. 12. will have a very poor appearance when dressed, as it will show a marked lack of width and length of breast, with excessive depth. (Notice that the head is narrow and long, the body is narrow, the eye is bright but slightly sunken, the legs are long and not straight under the body.) 13 observe the very flat breast, the length of back, the In Fig. long neck and head, the narrow comb, the sunken eye, and the length of legs. The breast comes fairly well back, but not well forward. In Fig. 12, the bill is short and stout, but not so well curved as it should be. Note the breadth of head, the prominence and brightness 24 of the eye, the short, stout neck, the great width of the breast, the fulness caused largely by the breast bone extending- well forward, the • ■, ■fa? i%;.'.* .-^.. Fig. IS. Fie. 1! 26 It is much easier to get good-shaped market pullets than good cockerels. The market demands a five-pound bird when dressed, and farmers have gone into raising big chickens. To that end they are asking for large, overgrown cockerels, of excessive depth, for breeders ; and the result is that we get dressed chickens weighing four to five pounds each, that have immense, high breast-bones and very long legs. These are not attractive to the buyers, and they sell at less per pound than plumper birds. For example, if given two birds of the same width of breast, one is one and one-half inches deeper in the breast than the other. The result will be that one bird will look plump and sell readily, while the other will lack in plumpness and be slow in selling. This lack of plumpness can be bred out by using such males as that shown 4n Fig. 12. We like to have birds as well built as we can get them, and Fig. 12 is as near the ideal market chicken as we have in the breed which he represents. The hen as seen in Fig. 15 is of a good market type. (Note the width and fulness of breast.) As a breeder, she is a little fine in bone, and rather too small. She has, however, that blocky appearance which is desirable. Fig. 16 is a photo of a cross-bred chick (sire, Buff 'Orpington; dam. Houdan). Note the length and fulness of the breast; also good beak and eye. Fig. 17 is a ten weeks' old son of Fig. 12. You will observe the same general characteristics as seen in the father — fair beak, good eye, excellent breast, both as to length and width, without excessive depth. The thigh is also medium in length. Fig. 18 represents the long, narrow sort. (Note the long beak, the narrow head, the sunken eye, the long neck, and long, crooked legs.) When dressed, his appearance will not be pleasing. Fig. 19 shows a good head throughout, very full and wide breast, and legs that stand well under the body and well apart. This bird is of the type we like to feed in the fattening crate. Trap-Nest. Fig. 20 represents a trap-nest made by the college carpenter. This nest if very simple in construction. The door is adjusted low enough so that the hen on entering raises it slightly, thus relieving the hook, which drops back and allows the door to fall. This nest works well. The only objection to it is that the fowls using it require to be pretty much of the same size. A small hen may not raise the door enough to unfasten it. We also use the Moyan trap nest. This nest is sold by A. J. Moyan, London, Ont. Where one is anxious to build up a certain strain of birds, either for special utility or for fancy exhibition purposes, the trap-nest, if looked after, will show what hens lay, and which hens lay certain eggs, thus enabling the breeder to know exactly what he is doing. 27 They require considerable time in the way of keeping records, and releasing hens after laying. Fattening Chickens. A number of experiments have been conducted in fattening chickens for the market. There is an unlimited market for well-fleshed fowls in England, and the demand at home is constantly increasing. Fatted chickens were on September 18th, 1903, selling for 13 cents per pound in Montreal, and the dealers could not get nearly as many as they wanted. The English market requires a white-fleshed chicken, and our best home market also appears to favor this color of flesh. Black- feathered chickens, and those having black legs, are not in favor. There is little use in trying to fatten scrub stock. Good pure- bred males of such breeds as Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes, and Orping- tons can be purchased at moderate prices, and these only should be used to breed from. Very large chickens are not in favor. What is Fig. 20 (a). Showing hook which holds up the door. The nest is 12 inches wide, 12 inches high, and 15 inches long. Fig 20 (6). Nest set ready for the hen to enter. required is a meaty bird weighing from four to five pounds. The breast should be especially well developed, and should be plump, as this is the most valuable part of the body. Construction of Fattening Crates. Fattening crates are usually made 6 ft. 6 in. long, 18 to 20 in. high, and 16 in. wide. The crate is divided into three compartments, each holding from four to five birds, according to the size of the chicken. The crate is made of slats, except the ends and partitions between the compartments, which are solid wood — those on the top, bottom and back running lengthwise of the coop, while those on the front run up and down. The slats are usually i\ inches wide and f inches thick. Those in front are placed 2 inches apart to allow the chickens to put their heads through for feeding. The slats on the bottom are placed about f inch apart, so as to admit of the droppings passing through to the ground. Care should be taken not to have the first bottom slat at the back fit closely against the back. An opening between the first 28 slat and the back prevents the droppings from collecting- and decom- posing. The slats on the top and back are usually two inches apart. There is a small V-shaped trough arranged in front of the coop for feeding and watering the chickens. This trough is from two to three inches deep and is generally made of f-inch lumber. Very fair coops may be made from old packing boxes, by taking off the front and bottom, and substituting slats in their places, (see Fig. 21). During warm weather, these crates may be placed out of doors. They need to be protected from the rain, which is easily ac- complished by placing a few boards over them. In cold weather the crates should be placed in a house or shed where they are protected from raw, cold winds. When fattening chickens inside of a building, it is well to darken the building and keep the birds as quiet as possible. Fig. 21. Showing a single crate or coop. After each lot of birds is killed, we paint the crates with some liquid lice-killer. Coal-oil and carbolic acid is very good. Use one gallon of coal oil to one pint of crude acid. We have used some of the prepared mixtures with good results. If the birds (bought from differ- ent parties) are very lousy when put up, they should be well dusted with sulphur. The birds should be watered at least twice every day in warm weather. Grit should be given them twice a week. During the first week feed lightly — never quite all the birds will eat. I prefer feeding three times a day during the first week, and twice a day during the succeeding weeks. It seldom pays to feed the birds longer than three or four weeks. Chickens weighing from three to three and one-half pounds each, that are thrifty and of good breed- ing, appear to be the most profitable for feeding. Large chickens, weighing from five to six pounds, gain less and eat more than smaller ones. 29 Should a bird become sick in the crate, I find that if it is given a teaspoonful of salts and turned out on a grass run it will usually recover. Cramming Machine. The crammer consists of a food reservoir, to the bottom of which it attached a small force-pump moved by a lever and treadle which is worked by the foot of the operator. Communicating- with the pump is a nozzle, through which the food passes to the bird. Fig. 22. Cramming machine for the forced feeding of chickens, turkeys, etc. "A," is the food reservoir; "B," the pump; "E," the pump rod; "O," the lever, which on being depressed at the lettered end, causes the pump rod "E," to which it is attached, to move downwards, and to eject the contents of the pump "B" out of the nozzle "K." On relieving the pressure at "O," the lever and the parts connected there- with are drawn up by the spring "C," until the motion is arrested by a stop "M," which serves to determine the quantity of food ejected at each depression of the treadle. The charge may also be varied by arresting the pressure at any point in the downward thrust of the lever "O. " The illustration (Fig. 22) shows one method of operating with this crammer, and this plan is now largely followed in some parts of Sussex, England. 30 Kind of Food Used in Cramming Machine. Not all kinds of foods can be used in the machine. The food must be in a semi-liquid condition in order to pass through the machine. This necessitates the use of some kind of grain that will stay in sus- pension in the milk, beef broth, or whatever liquid is used in mixing the grain. Finely ground oats, with the hulls removed, or shorts, answer the purpose well. We use almost entirely the former food. Grain, like corn-chop or barley meaj, are not suitable, as they sink to the bottom of the hopper and clog the machine. When cooked they work well, but are not good foods, as is shown by experiments con- ducted here. See page 33. The food is mixed to the consistency of ordinary gruel, or until it drips from the end of a stick. Will it Pay to Buy a Cramming Machine? For the ordinary person, I think not. First-class chickens may be had by feeding in the crate from the trough only; indeed, I have had equally fleshy birds that have been fed for four weeks from the trough as where we have fed them two weeks from the trough and one week from the machine. Where one has a special trade for high-class poultry, I am of the opinion that a more uniform product can be secured by using the machine. Machine-fed birds should realize at least one cent more per pound than trough-fed birds in order to pay for the extra labor, etc. Birds that are fairly well fleshed when put into the crate will do better if put at once on the machine, instead of being crate-fed first. Fattening Chickens in July. Early in July, several groups of chickens were put in crates for fattening. The results are given below. Lot I. consisted of 12 Barred Rock cockerels weighing, when put up in crate, a total of 37 pounds. First week . . Second week Third week. Fourth week Lbs. Grain Consumed. 17 24} 20 22 Lbs. Skim-milk Consumed. 25 31 30 33 Lbs. Gain. 5 8 4 Lbs. of grain to make I lb. Gain. 1.8 4.8 2.5 5.5 A verage gain per bird in 4 weeks. 2.1 lbs. Average of grain per lb. of gain in 4 weeks 3.2 lbs. They were sold to a Montreal firm at 15 cents per pound f.o.b. These chickens were rather leggy, and had high breast bones, and would have dressed much better when they had reached a weight of six or seven pounds. 31 Lot II. consisted of 8 high-grade Leghorns, weighing 18J pounds. First week . . Second week Third week. Fourth week Lbs. Grain Consumed. 7 11 10 7 Lbs. Skim-milk Consumed. 10 16 15 10 Lbs. Gain. 3 Lbs. of grain to make 1 lb. Gain. 1.8 7.3 3.33 4. Average gam per bird in 4 weeks. 1.28 lbs. Average of grain per lb. gain in 4 weeks 3.4 lbe. When dressed these chickens were somewhat plumper than the Rocks owing to their being mature, but they were rather small. They were sold at 13 cents per pound. Crate Feeding vs. Loose Pen Fattening of Chickens. The term "fattening of chickens" has been in use for some time, but it does not exactly convey the meaning intended by the feeders of chickens. The object is to make the chickens more fleshy, with just sufficient fat to make the chicken cook well. The chickens are not intended to be abnormally fat, yet at the same time, they carry con- siderable fat well intermixed with lean meat. We have, for a number of years, conducted experiments with chickens in crates and in loose pens. We have tried about six different feeders and the results vary. With some feeders we had equally as good results with birds in crates as with them in loose pens. W T e have had two feeders in particular who could not feed birds to advantage in loose pens as compared with crates. We have had one feeder who could get slightly better returns in some cases, not all, with birds in pens as compared with crates. In speaking to the buyers of chickens, the majority of them seem to think that the crate fed birds are much superior to those fed in loose pens. Personally, I would prefer feeding birds in crates, for the reason that it takes less room, and I believe that I can feed them with less expenditure of labor and get a more even product. There are now many people who can get good results from feeding birds in box stalls, etc. No matter which method is followed, cockerels should be fed for two weeks or more before they are killed and sold. Grain Rations. The following table shows the amount of feed consumed by the different groups of chickens, the cost of producing a pound of gain, and the number of pounds of grain it took to make one pound of gain : — 32 Grain Rations. Group I — Cornmeal, 5 parts . . Shorts, 4 parts .... Pearl oat dust, 1 part Animal meal, 1 part Group II — Cornmeal, 2 parts. Ground buckw't, 2 parts Pearl oat dust, 1 part Group III — Cornmeal, 4 parts. Ground buckw't, 2 parts Pearl oat dust,2prts Group IV — Cornmeal, 2 parts. Pearl oat dust, 1 part Group V — Pearl oat dust cost J- per cwt., $1.10 I Cost percwt., $1.23 Cost -percwt., tfl .22 j Cost percwt,, $1.23 ? Cost percwt., $1.50 No. of trials. First trial Second " Third " Average * First trial Second " Third " Average First trial Second " Third " Average First trial Second " Third " Average First trial Second " Third " Average £ a/ J. += — 03 * 3 S.S iT i >n X 00 CO vO 1 in m Ji 00 ir: t~ *» o t~ t-- t^ <* o o 'ajnjnsqns 10c. per 1 lbs. 12.67 O i-H *""' v~ s * -r CM to CO CM to tN NJ CM •»" CO o CM 00 •SutpSSJ S,5J83A\ O rH r ^ pjiqj jo pua in ;q3ia\A o> to o in 00 to to N CM CO cc CO o 00 CM •^r •Siupaaj s,3jaaAV O •"-! *"" puoaas jo pua }B iqSiaAY CO to s to CO to in CO N 00 -* c d X 00 ■^i CN •Suipaaj s.^aaM o f-( jsiu jo pua jb jq3ia.\\ « 2! CJ> >n s CO CO m 00 C7> N O o X c< Tf *T O0 "juauiuadxa o 1-1 jo SuunnSaq iBiqSia.w 5 in CO X - « *- ; be bi ) 3 3 P. P. +» CJ (U u «! O C ) < «! X CC •spjiq jo jaqranx cn r- CM J. 1 CN c-l CN l-H CM i-H CM . . i -. . • — " . •_ — k> —* t-, 1 ^1 . 1i cj 3 j a* a ■ * 3 a ■ oati m i per al, i it per oati s« 3 ^ 03 .0-3 w ■rjic o S rleyiue d swei ..81.15 i k"3 5 o.2 2 x c s X ■u T3 2>< oS — cj 3 a~ 5*3 a o "I K 'a co a "S cj 3^ ' 03 08 o2 cST XI C a w - X, a aS c. si t j O cJ 15 "3 CJ «il CO w r a] i- IB O 5 &o *■ g ce s CC CJ^ i 'S-oi ■3«£ cc -; •- 0j ^.F- ■sis 3 O g-3£ S < 5 3 Si 5 s^« 3 0j< s 5* 3 a — cj C ! ^ r? a 1/ U* cj tf q.03 a cr« » W W M w w w W w 36 •UTIiS CO CO CO CO to 1 CN + to 4 CO CO jo puuod ano jo jsoo 1 o n; TJ> IO ^ m iC •» >o i-t 1 to CN ■^ to CO ,• X CO tc iC CO f f- CT CN CO 00 ■JSO.J JBJOX 2 00 I- CO CO iC 1 "^ to iO ^Jt OJ « c o tc cc ■^7" i~ t~ iO IO CO . ira in irt *- OC £^ TJ" 'lipuS JO }30Q c oo" -r CO "* r~ CC CO c t^ -T CO i~ IO -r ■o ■* iO •Q ■* ■* •sinjtisqtis • to ♦1 T CN in o CO CO to cc to o li7 CN t^ 10 J[\im 10 J[i!in jo jsoo °co TP CO CN to o 05 CN t^ , ■^ !>. >-. r)5p!UIO) HUMS JOSpUllOJ tiee ■* TT CO CO '^ , CO CO CN CO rH N 00 -r IN ire en CC CO Tf to ■* iC •panins o *"■ -noo uu?j3 jo spunod co to CO IO a- CO •0 CO 0: CO 1 M n *c* o ■» •Sntpoaj s,^aaA\ o pj.iiO J° P ua J« }q3taA\ to to N CN CN O c 1 ■* c 1 CN CN •^ •Suipaaj s.TjaaAv OrH 1-1 1 puosas jo puo jb ji[3i9A\ S^ CC 1 CN to tc 1 oc tc CC 1 tc to t^ N't CN OC OC o OC c CN CN ■anipoaj s.^aaAv O r "' 1 ^ jsjh jo pno )v mSidw a J - o IC c tc 1 CO ire 1 ^ tc 1 CT CO to CO N OC CN o ^J o OC CN OC •juarauadxa o i— t »— jo autumsaq jn jusibav 2* o c if > CO US 1 cs en 1 •— * c CO o- t> o c CN *n ir. CN cv « CN CN CN i-i •Sntpaaj jo weft p. a. 1 c *• 4- 4- c . *■ *~ > a o C > !z c c £ * t C t O a CO o C > DC C C C ^ •spjiq jo isqranN 2 CN I— 1 e> 1 c I— r-. c^ CN 4 r- CN •- CN r- (M •- M p 3 "3 CD S* 01 a " to., as C B : si ■ 63 O > a -5 rid °.t; cc" ' s a; •4- "S'5 o_ 01 ! Si ; p i §f ' §^ ) S a BO j Sg.^ i S^i 1 -So?, i S d s ' a O. 5 "3§g QJ E B u > B a f- t.^ o a> b "32| O b ^ IS" * — — ™ o ) 5 « o-? ' .c g ! x .o- ! "3-S o - >- »o a o. \ *** ■ o ~ 3 o t — Ob Sal v o a ^ a.t = S c o.° , -3— : ~ 0. : §1 • 01^ : 2 a a i B"° ! °^ B ■ O u •O O. 3 c3 a s §~ *2 • © > a a- »-. & 03 OJ , ft a "5 £ CJ-j •3 "St : :-t e : m e co_ p a ! U I a! » a c ) B o «- ! E t> « : >- i' > O O.' ^ wco.t: ! £--* ■ 2°; O a , J3 O.' Cut: a a ►> s - 2o.i tn^'.t: eJ -3 ' a a is is CO » O.g *]? w ^_ C (55 a § o -S go J3h DQ 'S c a, W) £ o a>".C •3 I ation may be classified as follows : (i) The officers and students, past and present, of the Ontario Agricultural College, who pay an annual fee of 50 cents, and have control of the executive work of the Experimental Union ; (2) the experimenters of former years who have done satisfactory work; (3) leading farmers, gardeners, and others, whose names have been suggested by secretaries of Farmers' Institutes, secretaries of Agri- cultural Societies, principals of Collegiate Institutes, inspectors of Pub- lic Schools, and others; and (4) various persons who have seen the ex- periments of other people, or have in some way heard of the work and wish to assist in the movement by conducting experiments on their own farms. The circulars are distributed in the order here given, starting first by sending to those who have been connected with the College and are therefore trained for the work, and finishing the distribution by send- ing to those engaged in some branch of practical agriculture who have not conducted experiments previously but who wish to undertake the work. "From the beginning, the co-operative experimental work of the Union has been directed and controlled by circulars and letters, printed and written, which have been transmitted through the mails. When per- sonal visits have been made to the experimenters, the object has been to enable the director to study the difficulties of those actually engaged in the work, and thus to be in a better position to know the best methods to adopt in the printed instructions, rather than to take any part in the immediate control of the practical operations of the experiments. "Every man is made responsible for his own experiment, and is urged to do the very best he can for himself, for his neighbors, and for the Union. Many persons who at first took but little interest in the ex- periments, have afterwards proven themselves to be most valuable ex- perimenters, and have shown great care and accuracy in the details of their work. The names of those who conduct the experiments with the proper amount of care aid accuracy are placed on the list of successful experimenters, and these individuals are carefully looked after in the fu- ture. It will, therefore, be seen that the Experimental Union makes a study of the men themselves as well as of the products of their labor. The education of the men in the development of accurate methods, care- ful observation, and a deeper interest in the occupation of farming is one of the objects of the co-operative experimental work in Ontario. I have no hesitation in saying that the results which have been obtained along this line alone are of far greater value than the entire cost of the co-op- erative work of the past seventeen years. "No direct financial help is offered any person to undertake and carry through the co-operative work. It is purely a volunteer movement from the start to the finish. The materials for the experiments, the in- structions for making the tests, and the blank forms for reporting the results are furnished free of cost to those who ask to join in the work and who sign the agreement furnished by the Union. Experimenters in crop production use the soil on their own farms, conduct the experiments themselves, and report the results to the director of that particular branch of co-operative work in which they have enlisted. In those experiments in which crops are produced, the produce is retained by the experimenters as their personal property, except any small quantities which are re- turned to the College as samples. "The cost of the co-operative experiments is paid conjointly by the station and the Union. The station pays for most of the labor and for some of the material, and the Union for all of the stationery, printing, post- age, expressage, etc., as well as for part of the material required to carry on the co-operative work. "In 1905, the work has been carried out along thirty-five distinct branches of field agriculture, thus covering practically all of the crops which are grown on the ten million or more acres of the cultivated land of Ontario. As in 1904, a large number of experiments have been con- ducted in New Ontario. There is scarcely a settlement of farmers in the northern part of the Province that has not received seed, and has from one to twenty or thirty of its number actually engaged in the experi- mental work. For instance, there were exactly forty-eight experimenters in the Temiskaming District in 1905. When I visited that district this summer, I realized more than ever the great importance of work of this kind in a new section of country. Some of the settlers had been careless in the seed which they had sown, and some of the most troublesome weeds were getting a foothold in the clearings. The farmers of the dis- trict were very enthusiastic regarding the experimental work, and we could already see the good influence of the Union work of the past two or three years in those settlements which were visited. It is impossible to estimate the great value of this work in supplying seed of the best varieties of farm crops, in encouraging improved methods of agriculture, and in starting the people in the new country to experiment and investi- gate for themselves along the lines of their life work." Each year about thirty-five selected experiments are chosen for the work throughout the Province ; five of them are for autumn work. Those for the spring of 1906 are listed to show the large agricultural interest served. They are all carefully chosen. They have been under test on the College experimental grounds for at least five years, and only those varieties that have proven themselves worthy are distributed. All these are open to any responsible resident of Ontario who agrees (1) to follow instructions, (2) to be careful and accurate in his work, and (3) to report results after harvest. Application for forms and information should be addressed about Christmas time to the Director of Co-Operative Experi- ments in Agriculture, O.A.C., Guelph, Canada. List of Experiments in Agriculture for 1906. Grain Crops. Plots. 1 — Testing three varieties of Oats 3 2 — a Testing three varieties of six-rowed Barley 3 b Testing two varieties of two-rowed Barley 2 3 — Testing two varieties of Hullless Barley 2 4 — Testing two varieties of Spring Wheat 2 LO Plots. 5 — Testing two varieties of Buckwheat 2 6 — Testing two varieties of Field Peas 2 7 — Testing Emmer and Spelt 2 8 — Testing two varieties of , Soy, Soja, or Japanese Beans 2 9 — Testing three varieties of Husking Corn 3 Boot Crops. 10 — Testing three varieties of Mangels 3 11 — Testing two varieties of Sugar Beets for feeding purposes 2 12 — Testing three varieties of Swedish Turnips 3 13 — Testing Kohl Rabi and two varieties of Fall Turnips , 3 14 — Testing Parsnips and two varieties of Carrots 3. Forage, Fodder, Silage, and Hay Crops. 15 — Testing three varieties of Fodder or Silage Corn 3 16 — Testing three varieties of Millet 3 17 — Testing three varieties of Sorghum 3 18 — Testing Grass Peas and two varieties of Vetches 3 19 — Testing two varieties of Rape 2 20 — Testing three varieties of Clover 3 21 — Testing Sainfoin, Lucerne and Burnet 3 22 — Testing seven varieties of Grasses 7 Culinary Crops. 23 — Testing three varieties of Field Beans 3 24 — Testing three varieties of Sweet Corn 3 Fertilizer Experiments. 25 — Testing fertilizers with Corn 6 26 — Testing fertilizers with Swedish Turnips 6 Miscellaneous Experiments. 27 — Sowing Mangels on the level and in drills 2 28 — Testing two varieties of (a) early, (b) medium, or (c) late Potatoes 2 29 — Testing three grain mixtures for grain production 3 30 — Testing three mixtures of Grasses and Clover for hay 3 The size of each plot in each of the first twenty-seven experiments, and in Nos. 29 and 30, is to be two rods long by one rod wide ; in No. 28, one rod square. The advantages of the work, after twenty years' operation, are thus summed up : — i. It systematizes seed distribution along definite lines and for valu- able purposes. 2. It supplies a direct, as well as an indirect, source of information. 3. It enables practical men to obtain information regarding varieties of field crops, selections of seed, dates of seeding, methods of cultiva- tion, ways of increasing soil fertility, etc., for their own particular farms, which they could not get in any other way. 11 4. It enables farmers to get a supply of pure seed of the leading varieties of grains and potatoes, which rapidly increases in quantity, and thus furnishes seed for sowing and planting on large areas and for sell- ing at good prices. 5. It educates along the lines of careful handling and close observ- ation, accurate calculation and economical methods. 6. It trains men to unite science with practice and to lead other men to do likewise. 7. It helps farmers to understand better the scientific principles that they read about in bulletins, reports and newspaper articles, and that they hear about at agricultural meetings. 8. It furnishes hundreds and even thousands of object lessons annu- ally, which form centres for interesting study along the lines of progres- sive agriculture. 9. It supplies valuable topics and results for discussions in the field, at the fireside, in the corner grocery, and at meetings of Farmers' Insti- tutes. 10. It stimulates the local papers to take a deeper interest in advo- cating better methods of farming. 11. It furnishes some exceedingly important results for printing and distributing in the form of bulletins and reports. - 12. It adds dignity to farming and pleasure to farm life. 13. It exerts a wholesome influence in keeping the farm boys inter- ested in farm work. > 14. It leads to a substantial increase in farm profits, and to a steady advance in agricultural education throughout Ontario. Instructions for each experiment are carefully prepared. Those for Experiment No. 25 (1906) are inserted here partly as a suggestion of a line of investigation that might be followed in any neighborhood with the school as a centre and with any variety of crop. Smaller plots may be used, but it is always advisable to have them a regular fraction of an acre. A plot of one-two hundredth of an acre is recommended for school gardens of limited area (10 ft. by 21 4-5 ft.). For a school test a less extensive experiment would be best ; such an one as growing two plots of potatoes, one on well manured soil and the other on unmanured soil. Experiment No. 25. — Four Fertilizers and No Fertilizer with Corn. Instructions. General. — Make plots exactly the right size ; observe great accuracy in the work throughout ; keep the plots clean and tidy ; examine the experiment frequently ; compare one crop with another ; invite your neighbors to see the test; and discuss the results with your friends, in your local newspaper, and at the meetings of your Farmers' Institute, and you will surely enjoy the work, glean information for yourself, and have the great satisfaction of know- ing you have tried to do good to others. 12 Special. — 1. Be sure and do not leave out any fertilizer belonging to the experiment. 2. For an extra plot of similar size to the rest, secure five hundred pounds of average cow manure. 3. Wooden stakes painted white, on which the names of the fertilizers are plainly written with a lead pencil, answer nicely for labels. 4. Wooden stakes two inches square and two feet long, with the lower ends sharpened, are very suitable for driving in the ground at the four corners of each plot. 5. For your experiment, be sure and select soil which is very uniform throughout, and which is about the average quality of your farm. 6. Locate the experiment some distance away from buildings and trees, in order to prevent any injury by poultry or birds, or by the shade or the roots of trees, etc. Try and have your experiment near the public road, where it can be seen by the people who pass by. 7. Cultivate and harrow the land thoroughly, and thus make a seed-bed which is fine and uniform throughout. Work enough land to allow for a path three feet wide between each two plots. 8. Carefully measure six uniform plots; each plot being exactly two rods (33 feet) long by exactly one rod (16£ feet) wide, i. e., one-eightieth of an acre. 9. Drive the wooden stakes at the four corners of each plot, and leave a clean path three feet wide between each two plots. 10. Spread the 500 pounds of cow manure on one plot, and mix with the soil to a depth of 4 or 5 inches. 11. Sow the large lot of Superphosphate on one plot; the large lot of Muriate of Potash on another plot; and the small lot of Superphosphate and small lot of Muriate of Potash both on the plot for the mixed fertilizer. Stir the fertilizers in the ground to a depth of 1 or 2 inches. 12. Mark out each plot into ten rows one way by five rows the other way, allowing 3 feet 4 inches between the rows. 13. Plant five kernels of Corn at each of the places where the lines touch, and thus make fifty hills on each of the six plots. 14. When the plants are about three inches tall, sow the large lot of Nitrate of Soda on one plot, and sow the small lot of Nitrate of Soda on the mixed fertilizer plot on which the other two small of fertilizers were sown. Stir the surface of all six plots to a depth of 1 or 2 inches. 15. When the plants are six inches tall, thin out to four plants per hill. 16. Cut the Corn as soon as it has ripened sufficiently. Weigh the crop from each plot as soon as cut and then husk, weigh and count the ears. 17. When the ears have become sufficientliy dried, shell the corn and then weigh the grain of each variety. 18. Examine your report carefully and see that all the facts of the experiment are entered correctly. 19. Make a copy of the report and keep it yourself for future reference. 20. Kindly forward the report to Director of Co-operative Experiments, Agricultural College, Guelph, Ont., as soon as possible after harvest. The report on the work is sent in on a special form with a statement of the conclusions reached. These reports are examined carefully, ac- cepted if satisfactory, or rejected if the observations and conclusions show evidence of faulty experimenting-. Of course, in some cases, failure through unavoidable circumfetance$ has to be reported. Succeeding years show, however, improved practice by our farmers in this work. A sample form is shown here as a suggestion of something that could be 13 similarly done in any rural school with the field crops. For example,, scholars might draw a map of their fathers' farms and keep a record from year to year of the products of each field. This form is the one used for Experiment No. i, 1906, a test of dif- ferent varieties of oats : — VARIETIES. Pate of Seeding. Date of Maturing. Strength of Straw. Amount of Rust. Amount of Smut. Weight of Whole crop on each plot. Weight of Grain on each Plot. O V . 5 ate Cropping in Previous Year. H..\\ and when last Manured. , 1 Was this test made according to instructions in all particulars? Did 1,000 people see your experiment ? For your soil, which variety do you consider best V Second best? Third best? Poorest What variety of oats is grown most extensively in your County ? What is the most important result which you have obtained from this experiment that is likely to be of value to you in the tutu re ? A summary of the results of the experimenters throughout the whole Province is made at the central bureau. This is reported on at the Union's annual meeting in December, and is included in the annual re- port, which is published and distributed free as a Government report. Thus, for twenty years, many of our best farmers have been practically solving for themselves the questions of best seed, best manuring, and best cultivation of the soil. The work is not finished yet. It is only well commenced. Only a small fraction of the community has been reached. The school may well assist in the uplift, for it will share in the uplift. It makes for closer observation, for more intelligent thinking and doing in the common affairs that have been too long regarded as not needing thought and care. It makes for increased productiveness of land and consequent im- proved conditions of living. 14 T3 OS o o M ™ a Ph 5 w a S "S * a c a a? t* "C eo <5 tU Oi OhK « X ^ o ■■a s (J S-g ¥< O af o O a; m <* ~ ai2 a> < -4J S oj a i— i -*-= o Q -a « 03 15 16 a> ® s P. 03-£ 02 •r H (- & SIS "E' tM s- 03 c *^ «*; IS a> 03 CE 5 - e _ cS K S'S, 03 G. £<* ce 03 03 03 in S <» o> "S ** 03 ••r G P<-h P. •3 rU 03 -^ 00 iH o2 -w"o e*H 03 ^ — ' a 03 £ .a ^ *> 03 ^£ O fl o H © o • o 0<= j "5 - • 03 r -," OA DQ *j < K _, 0j „ S <-> i — 'O ~ rt ™ ^ W r- K- S'S P 2 PfC X ^^0) >» OD-G J 2 l-e S- ?3 s ^ 3 h 5 t».-So "- 1 > ** &4 ~** 00 T3 g 03 O 17 CO-OPERATIVE EXPERIMENTS IN FORESTRY. This branch of the Union work is not completely organized yet. There is one forest nursery established at the College, but its output is limited. A larger one has been equipped this summer to meet the de- mands of the Province. For the season of 1907 some seedlings may be ready, and at any rate seeds will be available for distribution to the schools. However, it is not necessary here as in agriculture and horticulture to develop im- proved varieties. Our forest trees are valuable for their wood and not for their fruits. Seeds that are as good as any imported may be gathered everywhere. This will be an especially attractive side of the nature study collecting. A list is given of the commoner trees, the seed of which it would be profitable to propagate. Up to the present, the work has been along the line of reclaiming waste land. From now on help will be available to those wishing to im- prove neglected farm wood lots. It is in this line that the school's in- terest may be directed. Much can be done by calling attention to im- proper conditions and suggesting lines of improvement. It is not meant that the teacher's office is to come forward and point out mistakes ; he would serve a good cause poorly by doing that as a rule. But by the direction of observation, he may lead the children to see the mistakes for themselves. This directive work may be done incidentally while following the line of work suggested in the departmental Course of Study, viz. : — Form I : Collecting and studying autumn leaves; Form II. : Forms and uses of trees; forestry and lumbering operations; pioneer life of district; Form III. : Culture of shade trees ; identification of common forest trees ; Form IV. : Buds and twigs; woods : rings, grain, bark, uses, etc.; forest plant life. Nature study teaching here fails in its largest function if it does not lead to a doing on the part of the scholar which will be of life value. And while the collecting, pressing, and mounting of leaves, the collecting and identifying of seeds, the polishing and mounting of different kinds of woods, have their proper share in the education of the boy, they must not be considered an end sufficient in themselves. They are for his youth. The end which is outward and visible should be rather an improvement in regard to the planting and care of shade trees at home and at school, and of wood lots on his own farm or on municipal waste lands. This may come into active evidence only after school days, but it is the school's part in education nevertheless. The real end of it all is inward and in- visible ; it is the development of a character through an interest in the shaping and controlling of one of nature's grandest products — trees. The teacher in the one-room rural school is not expected to teach technical forestry as it is taught in the schools of Germany or at this College. His function is directive. He leads his pupils to observe the conditions of the surrounding woods. He instructs him in proper con- ditions. He gets him to feel that there is need for improvement. He encourages him in the attempt, and directs him to the proper source for information and help. It may be that only one boy or one girl is stirred 2 Bull. 152. 18 to the problem. But schools are made up of single boys and girls. And modern education is for individuals, not for classes. It may be a parent or ex-pupil whom the teaching reaches. This is good, too. It is the teacher's work, no less. For the care of wood lots the following suggestions are offered : — i. Cattle should be kept out, as they prevent reproduction by brows- ing off seedlings, and by trampling the ground hard great loss of moisture by evaporation occurs. 2. Protective belts of coniferous trees such as White or Norway Spruce should be planted on the edges. The prevailing south-west winds of summer are very drying in an open woods. Fall winds tend to drive the leaves to the fences and prevent formation of the necessary humus. 3. Inferior species of trees, such as Hawthorns and Ironwood, should be removed, and their places filled with species of value. This may be done by dibbling in seed. Enquiry regarding the valuable trees that were originally on the land will be the key to the planting. 4. Defective and over-mature trees should be removed. It is a mis- take to think that a tree goes on forever improving. New trees might just as well be growing in their place. 5. Open spaces that have become grass or weed-grown should be cleaned and filled up with nursery stock. Our forest trees that should be cultivated : Species. White pine < Tamarack Black spruce White epruce Norway spruce Hemlock Balsam fir White cedar Willows and poplars. . Basswood Black walnut Butternut Hickory Chestnut Beech Oaks Elms Sugar maple Manitoba maple Silver maple Red maple Ashes Black cherry Locusts Sycamore Tulip-tree Time to collect seeds. Last of August, September. September. Sept. and Oct. July. October. Sept. and Oct. if Oct. and Nov. Sept. and Oct. May and June. October. Oct. and Nov. May and June. available forms; and, second, those which furnish directly to the soil th-j more important plant food constituents. Among the com- mon materials of the first class are gypsum, lime, and common salt. Indirect Fertilizers. Gypsum, or land^plaster, is sulphate of calcium, and has a limited action. It does furnish calcium and some sulphur, which are both re- quired in considerable quantities by such crops as clover and turnips ; but its chief action is in aiding the process of nitrification, by which ammonia and the nitrogen of organic matter are converted into forms which are readily assimilated by the plant, and in liberating potash and other ele- ments of plant food from insoluble forms of combination and making them available. Lime, like gypsum, aids nitrification and liberates plant food from insoluble forms of combination ; but it is more powerful in its action. Heavy clays, which are rich in insoluble forms of potash, and soils con- taining large quantities of humus, are those most benefited by lime. In reclaiming swamp lands, the acid humic matter of the peat is neutralized by the lime, and the conditions thus made suitable for the oxidation of the nitrogenous organic matter and the production of ammonia and nitrates. Lime has also a very beneficial influence on the physical condition of the soil. Common Salt supplies no essential ingredient of plant food. The little value which it possesses is probably due to its action in the soil, where it helps to set free more important constituents, particularly potash. It is important to bear in mind that these indirect fertilizers do not add plant food to the soil, but that their chief value lies in the fact that they liberate plant food from insoluble forms of combination. Hence, if crops are not growing on the land to make use of the liberated food, or if the soil has been over stimulated by a large and frequent application of lime, gypsum, or salt, loss of nitrogen, potash, and phosphoric acid will occur. Consequently, these stimulants should be used in moderation. On soils not acid in nature, one to one and a-half tons per acre of lime at intervals of five or six years would be a safe application. Direct Fertilizers. Direct fertilizers contain forms of plant food which contribute directly to the growth of plants. Such materials may contain either nitrogen, potash, or phosphoric acid compounds, or any two, or all three of these forms of plant nutrients. Nitrogen. The more important purely nitrogenous fertilizers are nitrate of soda, sulphate of ammonia, and dried blood. A new one, 9 known as calcium cyanamide, made by heating- calcium carbide in air from which oxygen has been removed, has very recently come into use. It is the first successful attempt at gathering nitrogen directly from the atmosphere and placing it in a commercial form on the market. Experi- ments made in Europe show it to be about equal in value to nitrate of soda, though a little slower in its action. Our own examination of this substance shows that it contains about 20 per cent, of nitrogen and that nitrification takes place somewhat slowly, the largest amount being avail- able about the third week after application. Potash. The muriate of potash and sulphate of potash are the two most important manures containing the one constituent, potash. The former contains about 50 per cent, and the latter 53 per cent, of pure potash. In both forms the potash is soluble and immediately available as food to the plant. Wood Ashes are an important source of potash. They contain only about one-tenth the percentage amount found in the muriate and sulphate of potash, but they are one of our own natural sources of potash and should be most carefully looked after. The potash in wood ashes is soluble and in a good form of combination. The ashes also contain some phosphoric acid and a large amount of lime. Phosphates. The most important phosphatic fertilizers are the ground rock phosphates and the superphosphates, prepared from them. Thomas phosphate, bone meal, bone ash, bone black, meat scrap, tank- age, fish refuse, cotton seed hulls, horn dust, etc., are materials which contain more than one plant nutrient and usually none of them in a very readily available form. High-Grade Fertilizers. These fertilizers may be again divided into high-grade and low- grade materials. Nitrate of soda, sulphate of ammonia, and dried blood are, for example, standard or high-grade nitrogenous materials. They are so classified, because they are fairly constant in composition and furnish nitrogen in some constant and definite form, which will always act the same under like conditions. Further, they are richer in nitrogen than any other nitrogenous manures, and the element is immediately or quickly available to the plant. Ground rock phosphates differ in this re- spect from the above mentioned nitrogenous substances, because, in the raw state, the phosphoric acid, tor which they are valued,. though present in large quantities and quite constant and definite in its form of combina- tion, is not available to plants. After it has been treated with sulphuric acid and converted into superphosphate, it is high-grade, owing to the fact that the phosphoric acid is now available. The various German potash salts, such as muriate of potash, sulphate of potash, etc., are also high-grade, since the composition of each grade and kind is practically uniform in its content of potash, which will always act the same under all conditions, and since they are richer in potash than any other potassic compounds suitable for making fertilizers. 10 Low-Grade Fertilizers. The products which are included in the second class differ from the first, in that they not only vary in their composition, but the constituents contained in them do not show a uniform rate of availability. Different samples of bone derived from the same source, treated in the same way, and ground to the same degree of fineness, would be high-grade, but because these conditions differ, bone from various sources cannot be depended upon to act the same under similar climatic and soil conditions. The same is true of tankage ; but, it varies also in the proportion of its two main constituents, nitrogen and phosphoric acid, and in the rate at which they become available to plants. In this class we must also place fish scrap, wood ashes, and all the miscellaneous substances that may be used in building up mixed or complete fertilizers. Guarantees. It is, therefore, evident that mixed fertilizers manufactured from these two classes of raw material will differ in value ; for, the nitrogen from nitrate of soda or dried blood will act quicker and is worth more than that from ground leather or horn. In the making of the ordinary complete fertilizers of commerce, in which nitrogenous, potassic, and phosphatic materials are all mixed together, it is impossible for the pur- chaser to judge of the nature of the materials used by the appearance, weight, or smell of the mixture. This fact is so well recognized that some years ago the Dominion Government enacted a law whereby it was made illegal for any manufacturer or importer of fertilizers to offer for sale any fertilizer at more than ten dollars per ton without first submitting a sample to the Minister of Inland Revenue. Along with the sample there must be a statement setting forth the nature of the materials which enter into its composition and the manufacurer's certificate of analysis of the fertilizer. The sample is submitted to the Chief Analyst for analysis and is preserved by the Department for the purpose of comparison with any samples of the fertilizer of that brand which may be collected during the next twelve months. If the fertilizer is put up in packages, every package must have the certificate of analysis placed upon it or attached to it ; if it is sold in bulk, such certificate must be produced and a copy given to every purchaser. Every certificate or guarantee must also contain a statement of the nature of the materials entering into the composition of the fertilizer. According to the provisions of the Fertilizer Act, the samples must be sent to the Inland Revenue Department in January of the year in which they are to be offered for sale. Immediately on the completion of the analysis, usually in March or April, the Department issues a bulletin giving the special name of the fertilizer, by whom manufactured, from what materials it was produced, composition as reported by manufacturers, 11 and the results of the Government analysis. It also contains a column in which the relative values per 2,000 pounds of each fertilizer is given. These bulletins are available to any one sufficiently interested to write the Department for one. In reporting the analysis* for 1906, the Chief Analyst writes as fol- lows : "In studying the present tabulated statement there seems to be good grounds for believing that the number of fertilizers of low price is on the increase, and it would appear necessary to call the attention of the farmer to the consideration that the fertilizing constituents in these are likely to cost him more than in fertilizers of a higher grade. It costs as much to mix a ton of fertilizer containing say 300 pounds of plant food as it does one containing twice that quantity. The cost of packing, cartage and freight is the same per ton. It is evident, therefore, that the manufacturer is in a position to sell the fertilizing constituents of a high- grade fertilizer at cheaper rates per pound than those in brands of low grade. In other words, the higher the grade the cheaper can the plant food be bought. Farmers should therefore consider the advantages of purchasing only high-grade fertilizers. They should be also advised to avoid those brands which have less than 2 per cent, of ammonia or pot- ash. These percentages are too low in cases where such ingredients are required, and where they are not needed it is useless to purchase them. It is waste of money to buy nitrogen or potash in fertilizers containing less than one per cent, of these ingredients." Calculation of the Value of Fertilizers. As previously stated, the tabulated results in the fertilizer bulletins of the Inland Revenue Department includes a column showing the trade value of the various brands of fertilizers analyzed. These figures do not represent the agricultural value, which would be measured by the value of the increased crop produced by their use ; because it is manifestly im- possible to fix the value of any of the constituents that will be correct under the varying conditions of soil, crop, season, and method of use. What they are intended to show is what the farmer would have to pay the manufacturer for the constituents which are in the fertilizer before they are mixed. These trade values of each constituent are obtained by simply calculating the cost, using two factors — the wholesale price of the different materials containing them, and their average composition. To this cost is added a certain percentage to represent the cost of handling and distribution in small lots. Calculated in this way, Bulletin No. 118 of the Inland Revenue Department gives the following figures as the trade value of the fertilizing ingredients : * Inland Revenue Department, Bulletin No. H8. 12 Nitrogen : Cents per lb. Nitrogen in salts of ammonia or in nitrates, as well as in compound fertilizers 17 Organic nitrogen in ground bone, fish, blood or tankage 16 Phosphoric acid : Soluble in water 6 Soluble in 1 per cent, citric acid solution 5^ Insoluble as in Thomas ' phosphate powder 3^ Insoluble as in ground rock phosphate and fertiliz- ers generally 1^ Potash : Potash in high-grade salts 5 The value of these figures is that by their use and the percentage composition, or guarantee, the purchaser is able to calculate, at least, the approximate cost of the fertilizer and is thus not likely to be imposed upon. Voorhees, in his book on "Fertilizers," points out that there is a very decided lack of intelligent application of this information, and gives the following illustration of the fact that farmers do, in many cases, pay exorbitant prices for their fertilizer constituents, not because the manufacturer did not sell what he claimed to sell, but because the price charged by the dealer was far in excess of that warranted by the guaran- tee : "Two brands are offered, made up from the same kind and quality of materials. No. 1 is guaranteed to contain : Nitrogen 1 per cent. Phosphoric acid (available) 6 Potash ". .' 1 and sells for $20 per ton ; No. 2 is guaranteed to contain : Nitrogen 4 per cent. Phosphoric acid (available) 8 Potash 2 and sells for $22 per ton. The farmer who buys on the ton basis, or is guided only by the ton price, will be induced to purchase the No. 1 brand, because by so doing he apparently saves $2 per ton. The one who studies the relation of guarantee to selling price will purchase the No. 2 brand, because he finds, from a simple calculation, that it furnishes the con- stituents at just one-half the cost per pound of the No. 1 brand, notwith- standing the higher ton price, which is shown by the following calcula- tion : 13 No. i. Lbs. Cts. per ton. per lb. Nitrogen i%x2o = 20 at 30 $6.00 Phosphoric acid (available) ... 6% x 20 =120 at 10 12.00 Potash i%x2o = 20 at 10 2.00 $20.00 No. 2. Lbs. Cts. per ton. per lb. Nitrogen 4% x 20 = 80 at 15 $12.00 Phosphoric acid (available) ... 8% x 20 =160 at 5 8.00 Potash 2% x 20 = 40 at 5 2.00 $22.00 In reality, the fertilizer at $22 per ton is cheaper than the one at $20 per ton. Cost per pound of constituents in : No. 1. No. 2. Nitrogen $0.30 $0.15 Phosphoric acid (available) ." 10 .05 Potash 10 .05 This may seem an extreme case, but it is well within the facts, which may be ascertained by consulting the bulletins on fertilizer analyses, as published by the different States." It will thus be seen that the Government in compelling the manu- facturer and dealer to produce the guarantee at time of sale, does not wholly protect the farmer. He must be able to use the data given to ascertain which fertilizer will really give him the best value. Further- more, sometimes the guarantees are rendered confusing to the purchaser, because of the way in which they are stated, and if he is going to buy intelligently he must endeavor to post himself as to the meaning of the different terms. Home-Mixing of Fertilizers. Reference to the bulletins of the Dominion Inland Revenue Depart- ment shows that there are a great number of brands of fertilizers on the market which are specially recommended for certain crops. These mix- tures may or may not suit the conditions of the soil and the needs of the crop. Unfortunately, the tendency is for the farmer to buy these mix- tures, but as they understand the true principles of fertilization, the tendency will be to buy the simple substance, as nitrate of soda, muriate of potash, and superphosphate, or the Thomas phosphates, which are not so hard to understand, to make up the deficiency of the soil or to supply the needs of the crop. Or they may buy these high-grade ma- terials of known quality and prepare their own mixtures. 14 It may often occur that home mixtures of fertilizers can be made which will better meet the requirement of the particular soils and crops under cultivation than any mixture that can be procured on the market. Reliable authorities have estimated that the charges of the manufacturers and dealers for mixing and bagging are, on the average, $8.50 per ton. It is evident that this, together with the extra freight on and cost of handling the make-weight substances commonly added, would leave a fair margin to pay for labor involved in making the mixtures at home. The offal from our pork-packing houses, if properly ground, could well be used as the basis of many of such mixtures. As it is, practically all of this valuable fertilizer is shipped out of the country, where it is ground, mixed with other substances, rebagged, and much of it finds its way back into this country under the name of many special brands of fertil- izers. Application of Fertilizers. As a rule, fertilizers must be looked upon as adjuncts to farmyard and green manures, and should be applied to make up some deficiency in the soil or to add some constituent specially needed by the crop grown. Consequently, in general farm practice on soils in good condition; one ele- ment "may be all that is required, as, for instance, nitrogen for cereals and mangels, potassium for the legumes, and phosphorus for turnips. With the gardener and fruit grower more than one constituent may be required. But he must not lose sight of the fact that he cannot get good results without an abundance of humus in the soil, and if it cannot be supplied from farm manures, it must be obtained from crops, prefer- ably legumes, grown to plow down. Space will not allow a full discussion of the characteristic fertilizers for each crop. Some reference has been made to the ability of the ordin- ary farm crops to absorb food, and, in general, it may be stated that the ones most likely to give remunerative returns for the fertilizers applied are those which require a great deal of labor in their cultivation. A maximum crop of mangels or turnips does not require more labor in cultivation than half a crop, and, frequently, if all the other conditions are right, a dressing of one or two hundred pounds of nitrate of soda to the former, or two to four hundred pounds of superphosphate to the latter, will make a wonderful difference in the yield. With reference to the crops of the market gardener and fruit grower, it may be stated that quality is often as important a point as quantity. Quality depends upon, or is measured by, both appearance and pal- atibility. Palatibility is determined by the succulence and sweetness of the vegetable, or its freedom from bitterness, stringiness, and other undesirable characteristics which frequently exist, and which can be largely eliminated by providing an abundance of food for a continuous and rapid development of the plant. Any delay in the growth of a radish or of lettuce is largely responsible for the sharp taste or pungent flavor of the former, and the bitterness and toughened fibre of the latter. A 15 reasonable excess of all the fertilizer constituents is required for all garden crops, and where succulency is specially required, nitrogen and potash should predominate. How to Experiment with Fertilizers. Every man must study his own soil and crop conditions. Experi- ment stations may experiment from now until the end of time and still not be able to answer the question for the individual. Principles can be established, the needs of different crops can be learned, the composition of fertilizers can be determined, chemical and physical analyses may show wherein soils differ ; but when it comes to the question of the pro- fitable use of the fertilizers, each farm, each field, must answer for itself. That is, careful, intelligent, and accurate experiments must be carried on by every farmer, gardener, and orchardist who wishes to settle this point. In all fertilizer experimental work it is important that the land used be as uniform in soil condition and previous manuring and cropping as can be procured. The size of the plots may vary according to the nature of the crop from two square rods to one-tenth to one-third of an acre, or larger if desired. The larger plots have some advantages, but, the smaller the plots the more likely they are to be of uniform soil, and the labor involved in harvesting and weighing the crop is less. A space should be left between the plots to prevent the roots of the plants in the border line drawing food from both plots. The following simple plan for experimenting can be carried out by any farmer without difficulty, and enables him to find out if the land is in need of plant food. The plan as it is can be adopted for vegetables, fruits, and most field crops, except legumes. The amount of fertilizers given are for an acre, and can be reduced according to the size of the plot. Plot No. I.— Check. No fertilizer. " II. — 600 pounds of superphosphate. 120 muriate of potash. 180 " nitrate of soda. III. — 600 superphosphate. 180 " nitrate of soda. In this experiment, plot No. I. will show what the land without any fertilizer will produce; plot No. II. indicates what effect an average complete fertilizer will have, and plot No. III. shows the effect of nitro- geo and phosphoric acid, and brings out the influence potash has had on the crop. A simple form of experiment to study the soil deficiencies in respect to a single element of plant food, and the relative needs of the different crops for the various constituents, is as follows : Plot No. I. — Check. No fertilizer. " II. — 160 pounds of nitrate of soda. " III. — 160 " muriate of potash. " IV. — 320 " superphosphate. 16 Or, if ir is wished, the experiment may be made more complicated, as follows : Plot No. I. — Check. No fertilizer. " II. — 160 pounds of nitrate of soda. " III. — 160 " muriate of potash. " IV. — 320 " superphosphate. V.— Check. No fertilizer. " VI. — 160 pounds nitrate of soda. 320 " superphosphate. VII. — 160 " nitrate of soda. 160 " muriate of potash. " VIII. — 320 " superphosphate. 160 " muriate of potash. " IX. — 160 " nitrate of soda. 160 " muriate of potash. 320 " superphosphate. X. — Check. No fertilizer. The amount of the fertilizers given are, in every case for an acre; but they are not intended to represent the quantities of these materials which should be used for various crops. That point will be arrived at as a result of the experiments. The application of the potash and super- phosphate should be made broadcast before planting, preferably some weeks before. The nitrate is very soluble, and is easily leached from the soil, consequently, it is best applied in two or three applications, one at time of sowing seed, and the' other two at intervals of three or four weeks. In every case, the fertilizers should be evenly distributed over the ground. The above mentioned quantities provide for one pound or multiple thereof per square rod. Careful notes should be made on the increased cost of production, the appearance and quality of the crop, and the weight of the products of the different plots should be determined, and the whole data used as a basis of comparison. As interest in the work increases, further- ex- periments may be made with different quantities of these materials and with other fertilizers. In these fertilizer experiments it may also be well to introduce lime into one or two of the plots, in order to determine whether this substance is needed either to correct acidity or to make other useful compounds available. Further, it would be good practice to include in the number of plots indicated one or two in which the cultivation of the soil was made more perfect, the object being to see whether the need is for more plant food or better cultivation. All these experiments have a much wider scope than the simple find- ing out of the deficiencies of the soil. They are educative, as they en- courage close observation and exact methods of work, and give the ex- perimenter an opportunity to familiarize himself with the materials used as fertilizers. LIST OF BULLETINS. Published by thb Ontario Department of Agriculture, Toronto. Serial No. Date. Title. Author. 118 Jan. 1902 Yeaat and its Household Use F.C.Harrison. 119 April 1902 Ventilation of Farm Stables and Dwellings. J. B. Reynolds. 120 May 1902 Bitter Milk and Cheese F. C. Harrison. 121 June 1902 Ripening of Cheese in Cold Storage com- („ H D pared with ripening in Ordinary Curing \ F 'n Harrison Rooms I 122 June 1902 Spray Calendar Wm. Lochhead. 123 July 1902 O .Id Storage of Fruit { Jj.^, i53. 0ld8 " 124 Dec. 1902 Nature Study, or Stories in Agriculture Staff, O. A. C. 1 25 Dec . 1902 Roup ( A Disease of Poultry ) j ^ Strait!^" 011 ' 126 April 1903 Peas and Pea Weevil • {w^Shead. 127 May 1903 Farm Poultry W. R. Graham. 128 Aug. 1903 The Weeds of Ontario {^ 5^^. 129 Dec. 1903 Bacon Production G.E.Day. 130 Dec. 1903 Bacterial Content of Cheese cured at dif-fF C. Harrison. ferent Temperatures \ Wm. T. Connell. 131 Dec. 1903 Ripening of Cheese in Cold Storage com- j H jr rj ean pared with Ripening in Ordinary Curing j R " jT arc0Urt ' Rooms I 132 Dec. 1903 Roup ; An Expermental Study : { ^ sird?™ 80 "' 183 Dec. 1903 Present Condition of San Jose Scale in Ontario Wm . Lochhead. 134 June 1904 Hints in Making Nature Collection? in Public and High Schools W. H. Muldrew. 135 June 1904 The Cream-Gathering Creamery { x\