^.' In ■ (< ''^ A ^-. ,J> ;o J I /\ FOURTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT t>F THE S E C R E T A R Y OF THE STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE OF THE STATE OF MICHIGAN, WOJl XHH: YEA.R, 1875. LIBRARY NEW YORK BOTANJCAL GARDEN BY AUTHORITY, LANSING: W. S. GEOKGE & CO., STATE PBINTEES AND BINDEKS. 1876. X. n nn v> If frmkrl o| %ii\\i[ ioard of lj9ri(;uliinit. Hon. HEZKKIAH G. WPILLS, of Kalamazoo, PRESIDENT OF THE BOjVRD. Hon. J. WEBSTER CHILDS, of Ypsilauti, VICE PRESIDENT. Hon. GEORGE W. PHILLIPS, of Romeo. Hon. franklin WELLS, of Constantine. Hon. a. S. DYCKMAN, of South Haven. Hon. MILTON J. GARD, of Cassopolis. JOHN J. BAG LEY, Govern or of the State, T. C. ABBOT, President Agricultural College 4 Ex Officio'. ROBERT G. BAIRD, Secretary. EPHRAIM LONGYEAR, of Lansing, Treasurer. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY LIBRARY ■^EW YORK BOTANICAL QARDEfv OP THR STATE BOARD OF A(^EICULTURE. Agricultukal College, Lmising, December '27, 1875. To John J, 13agley, Governor of the State of Micliigan: I have the honor to submit herewith, to your Excellcucy, as required by stat- ute, the accommpanying Eeport for the year 1875,- wath supplementary papers. Respectfully yours, ROBERT G. BAIRD, SecretMi'y of Michigan State Board of Agriculture. COLLEGE ACCOUNTS. SECRETARY'S ACCOUNT For the Year from December 1st, 2874, to November 30th, 1875. Dr. To balance on hand December 1st, 1874 _ f2,033 48 Kec'd from State Treas. on acc't of interest $14,413 72 cnrrent expense 8,138 00 library 500 00 bnildiugs and repairs 2.775 00 mnseum _ . . 323 00 stock, experiments, etc 835 00 chemical department . 537 50 steani works, furnitnre, etc. 1,000 00 horticnltnral department- - . 385 00 bridge 800 00 29,707 22 Ree'd from farm department — receipts 1874. . .* $449 7G sale of land— T. Smith, 1874.. ..* 70 00 farm department — receipts 1875 4,649 48 5.1 G9 24 Rec'd from horticultural department— receipts 1874 * $278 80 receipts 760 4G boarding hall bill 74 57 1,113 83 Rec'd from farm house — board of employes . . 1 ,048 34 apiary receipts, 1874 $48 95 1875 44 36 93 31 Rec'd from library receipts, 1874 $ 8 91 1875 ._ 73 92 82 83 Rec* d from chemical laboratory (sale of steam coil) 22 63 boarding hall receipts, and board of employes _ 1,107 82 vacation account ... 52 07 Thomas Smith — payment on hmd 105 00 Interest on land 39 53 part-payment on horse . ^ 75 00 students' indebtedness. 1874 698 82 matriculation. 435 00 incidentals.. 828 25 room rent 473 00 chemicals 431 86 board, washing, etc .t . 7,438 13 10,305 06 $50,955 36 * These amounts appear in the statements of heads of departments for 1874, bnt were not received in time to appear in the Secretary's account. See Report for 187-t, page IL 8 STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. Ck. By cash paid E. Longj^ear $50,623 81 balance on hand 331 55 $50,955 36 SUMMARY OF TREASURER'S ACCOUNT. 1874. Dk. Dec 1, — To balance from old account §2,751 86 1875. Nov. 30.— To cash at sundry times of Secretary and State Treasurer 50,623 81 Total - S53.375 67 1875. Cr. Nov. 30,— By paid warrants - - - $53,115 97 By balance to new accoimt 259 70 $53,375 67 1875. Dr. Dec. 1. — To balance fi-om old account $259 70 E. LOXGYEAR, Treasurer. I certify that the above is a true copy of the report of the Treasurer of the State Board of Agriculture, and that the original report is on file in my office. R. G. BAIRD, Secretary of State Board of Agriculture. SUMMARY OE AVARRAXT ACCOUNT For year endinrj November 30^ 1S75. Expenses of State Board $711 90 Salaries of officers. 17,7.50 43 Horticultural department account, J874 $278 80 •1875 2,023 62 2.302 42 Farm department account, 1874. $405 89 1875 2,415 76 2.911 65 Farm-house - 986 69 COLLEGE ACCOUNTS. Boarding hall $11,656 29* Chemical department— apparatus. $642 24 + $131 OS 773 92 chemicals.. 307 50 Library §202 OS " ' 286 58 expense 5 90 494 56 Museum 359 91 Apiary, account of 1874. §48 95 1875 :.. 27 29 76 24 Vacation accouui 1,329 11 Xew buildings 1,026 51 Improyement of buildings and grounds 140 04 Furniture and fixtures 38 75 Buildings and repairs 2,721 37 Steam works, furniture, and repairs 835 41 Xe^v bridge (oyer Cedar riyer) 800 00 Horse for boarding hall 150 00 Stock experiments, etc ._ 165 00 Secretary's office (books, stationery, postage, work, etc.) .. 218 63 President's " " '• ' '' " 72 72 Article on and map of peach regions 150 00 Adyances refunded to students _ 793 59 Indebtedness 2.642 53 Extra work on new houses 1,056 72 Furnaces in " 435 17 Wells and pumps for new houses 1 60 60 Eepairing new houses (damage by hailstorm) 41 20 Secretary's house 20 81 college hall 55 98 steps of Prof. Beal's house 9 13 cattle barn 125 and cleaning laboratory . 21 33 Wood for laboratory 56 25 Oil, matches, etc., for laboratory 12 20 Stoye and pipe for college hall 25 35 , Wood for college hall 104 21 Oil and matches 8 60 Cleaning drain 2 25 Presi dent's office 2 50 Telegrams, boxing and expressage on reports, and postage on catalogues 127 23 Janitor's wages during yacation _. 106 25 Hack hire for committees, members of legislature, and officers A'isiting college 69 00 Eibbons for diplomas 4 75 Adyertising college in yari ous papers 98 50 Cuts for reijort and i:)amphlet on entomology. 101 70 Insurance 50 00 Gardener's expenses from Xew York. 24 90 Sunday seryices 75 00 Balance on apparatus, M. Miles _ _ 16 00 New mail-bag 6 50 Blank book and index 4 35 Map for catalogue 29 40 Grading in front of President's house 3 50 Freight on pipe and tile _ 2 11 Gate irons 10 75 Cards for labels 1 55 Erasers for blackboards 8 00 * It will be seen that there is a discrepancy between the receipts for board and disbursements for the same. The receipts here sriveu are the actual amonnts of cash received. The balance of board is paid by students' labor. The cash receipts and students' labor equal the disbursements and indebtedness of board. 2 10 STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. Keep of horse at Constantine , §3 00 Surveyor's chains 9 78 State "fair expenses, Gulley, Cook, and Garfield, and care of stock, etc. S3 11 Expenses of President, to Ypsilanti $G 30, to Dearborn, $9 00, on college business 15 30 Expenses of Secretary, settling bills and fare, to and from Dear- born 18 85 Expenses of Prof. Beal, obtaining siiecimens for centennial 29 75 Premium on gold to paj^ for pulper (Ontario) 5 81 Board of gardener, foreman of farm and garden, assistant fore- man of farm, and assistant on garden and green house 732 IG $53,00597 Note.— It will be seen that there is a diffei-ence between the above acconnt and the Treasurer's statement of warrants paid of $50. Warrant No. 2273, for i;50, was drawn in October, 1874, and was included in Secretary's summary for that year. The Treasurer did not par it until after December 1st, 1874, and it therefore appears in his account for this year. See Report for 1S74, p. 13. DEPARTMENT ACCOUNTS FOK THE YEAR. FARM DEPARTMEXT. Du. To disbursements on account of — stock. $115 05 pigs. __. 70 75 office. -- 27 37 labor 1 ,013 23 tools and implements 112 4G repairs 05 09 loll _ 4 20 sheep 28 15 teams 201 38 lumber. _ 19 76 seeds 93 01 f ue 1 2568 hardware 48 29 wire for fences _ . 6 01 plaster, muck, etc 29 33 medicine 5 12 traveling expenses 40 15 board of employes _ . _ 510 67 ' $2,415 7G students' labor 2.103 84 bills payable 287 73 Cr. By receipts — bill of farm house sales of stock. use of stock pigs produce wool feed... . 12 15 $150 61 2.037 70 78 95 245 80 955 20 276 75 COLLEGE ACCOLTNTS. 11 labor - _ §42 85 iinplemeuts 7G sheep _ 20 23 sale of team 1 55 00 students' labor.. 31 34 team accomit 24 2G wood... 617 8S §4,649 48 bills receivable 190 95 increase of inventory _ 648 73 Profit, $33 10, and increase of inventory, §648 73, to balance 681 S3 $5,489 16 §5,489 16 IIOUTICULTURAL 1)EPAUT:MEN'T. Dr. To disbursements — greenhouse §790 3(i vegetable garden 111 44 team. 224 95 labor 239 00 tools, implements, and repairs. 182 28 office 11 31 grounds 1 08 1 nursery 3 90 orchard 69 07 manure 26 30 board of teamster and extra man _ _ 256 91 §2,023 62 students' labor 1.369 33 bills payable 129 87 Cr. By receipts — green-house. • §367 77 vegetable garden . 383 59 orchard . 13 30 team.. 9 90 feed 9 25 labor _ 1 28 tools 8 71 lumber 90 payment on horse '. . . 40 33 §S35 03 bills receivable 149 48 increase in inventory . 341 i.5 balance 2,196 36 §3,522 82 _§a,5_22_82 HORTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT,— CLASSIFICATION. Green-house and flower beds. Dr. To cash disbursements... * §790 36 board of assistants 97 57 students' labor 166 57 team labor 74 10 bills payable 12 36 manure (three loads) 3 00 *Two hunfh-ed dollars of these disbi:rscments were paid for repairing damages inflicted by the great liail storm. 13 STATE BOAED OF AGRICULTURE. Cr. By plants and flowers sold $366 77 given to S. B, of A 46 85 increase in inventory 938 70 To increase to balance. .". §208 36 $1,352 32 #1,352 32 Vegetable Garden. Dk. To cash disbnrsements $111 44 stndents' labor (inclnding 1,087)^ hours for drainage of new garden).. .. 290 58 team labor 86 40 manure (193 loads) 193 00 decrease in inventory 487 90 Cr. By receipts $383 59 bills receivable 69 83 decrease in inventory and improvement of ground to balance 715 90 $1, 169 32 $1, 169 32 Grounds. Dr. To cash disbursements $108 10 students' labor 609 88 team labor. 213 60 manure (54 loads) 54 00 Cr. By eight tons hay (sold team account) $80 00 balance (expense) 905 58 $ 985 58 $985 58 Barn. Dr. To students' labor $20 10 team labor 27 90 Cr. By improvements $4S 00 $48 00 $48 00 Team and Teamster's Labor. Dr. To cash disbursements $463 95 board of teamster. 159 34 team labor 11 40 bills payable 30 15 eight tons hay 80 00 Ce. By receipts , $20 43 payment on horse 40 33 bills receivable. 5 40 note for balance on horse , , 60 00 amount charged various departments _ 732 00 To decrease in inventory 146 40 By balance _ 33 08 $891 24 $891 24 COLLEGE ACCOUNTS. Tools ^ Implements^ and Eepairs. Dr. To cash disbursements $182 28 students' labor 68 21 team labor - 12 30 bills payable -. 79 87 Cr. By recipts increase in inventory balance (expense) $342 66 Office. Dr. To cash disbursements $11 31 bills payable 99 Cr. By increase in inventory To balance 6 70 $ 19 00 Nursery. Dr. To cash disbursements $3 90 students' labor. 45 00 team labor 6 00 manure 1 00 bills payable 2 25 Cr. By balance (expense) $58 18 Orchard. Dr. To cash disbursements $69 07 students' labor... 52 96 team labor 53 40 manure 11 00 Cr. By receipts balance (expense) $186 43 Manure. Dr. To cash disbursements $26 30 students' labor ,... 55 44 team labor.. 245 70 bills payable 4 25 Cr. By amount charged various departments balance 13 $9 61 18 55 314 50 $342 66 $19 00 $19 00 $58 18 $58 18 $13 30 173 13 $186 43 $331 69 $262 00 69 69 $331 69 14 STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. General Account. Dr. To students' labor on hall and houses |24 04 cellar 16 62 State Fair 19 93 |60 59 team labor, specinieiis for centennial . 1 20 Cr. By due from professors $14 25 balance (expense) 47 54 $61 79 $61 79 DEPARTMENT ACCOUNTS. Farm House. Dr. To cash disbursements |986 69 bills payable 87 29 Cr. By board of foreman, superintendent, and employes of farm and garden, teamster. 344 6-7 weeks, at $3 04..'. $1,048 34 inci'ease in inventory 25 64 11,073 98 $1, 073 98 Cher)iical Department. Dr. To cash disbursements ... . $642 24 " " 131 68 $773 92 Cr. By receipts (sale of coil) $22 63 appropriation (State Legislature) 537 50 increase in invejitory 501 12 To balance 287 33 $1.0 61 25 $1,0 61 25 Lihrary. Dr. To cash disbursements '. . . $494 56 students' labor 117 08 bills payable $4 25 13 75 18 00 Cr. By receipts $73 92 appropriation (State Legislature) 500 00 increase in inventory 571 74 To balance 51 6 02 $1,145 66 $1,145 66 Museum. Dr. To cash disbursements $359 91 students' labor 28 97 bills payable ; 114 00 COLLEGE ACCOUNTS. 15 Cr. By appropriation (State Legislature) $323 CO increase in inventory G39 05 To balance .' $459 17 'I' $962 05 $962 05 Apiary. Dr. To cash (lisbnr?ements students' labor. Cr. By receipts increase in inventor}- balance $27 29 33 79 $36 11 19 83 5 14 $61 OS $61 08 STUDENTS' LABOK. During the year the students have been credited v/ith 47,978 liours' labor, amounting to $4,777 59. Of this sum $4SS 47 was paid for labor performed during the summer vacation, the rate per hour l)eing KJo cents. The average price per hour tlirougliout the year (including vacation labor,) lias been 9.995+ cts., and the amounts cliarged to difierent departments are as follows : Farm department $2,103 84 Horticultural department, including care of grounds 1,369 16 Permanent improvements 691 59 Library - 117 08 Museum _ 28 97 Apiary 33 79 Secretary's ofSce 28 28 President's ottice 30 63 Carrying mail. . _ 106 53 Einging bell 53 61 • Care of buildings 92 88 Conducting visitors, collecting specimens, etc _ 81 55 Playing organ 27 13 Extra work maps _ . . 12 55 _ •$^J77 59 BOARD. Students are furnished witli board and washing at cost, and the receipts therefor add nothing to the actual income of the college. The average price of board through- out the year has been $2 76)4 per week. Washing, 42 cts. per dozen. 16 STATE BOARD OF AGIIICULTUEE. i]s^ye:n^tory IXVENTOKY OF BUILDINGS. College hall - $1 5,000 00 Chemical laboratory. _ - - 12,000 00 New boarding hall. _ - 45,000 00 Old boarding hall - - - - - - - 15,000 00 Farm house 3,500 00 Three brick cottages 0,000 00 One brick cottage. 4,275 00 Herdsman's cottage - - - - 600 00 Six barns at Professors' houses 1,800 00 New barn and shed, horticultural department 500 00 Cattle barn and shed - - - 3.200 00 Sheep barn. 2,500 00 Horse barn - - - - 3,000 00 Piggery --- 2,000 00 Brick work shop... 600 00 Garden barn 600 00 Blacksmith shop, tool house, feeding house, etc 400 00 Windmill and water supply 500 00 Three new houses 20.718 00 Green house 8,000 00 Bee house 280 00 $148,473 00 INVENTORY OF FAE3I DEPART3IENT. Reapers, mowers, plows, etc. .'=51.528 00 Hand implements 322 75 Wagons, carts, sleighs, harness, etc 475 60 Scales.... .........°..' 112 00 Chains and hardware 51 80 Carpenters tools $103 40 Masons' tools 10 60 Blacksmiths' tools. 46 00 lUO 00 Miscellaneous 247 90 Stock. Short horn cattle, 18 _ $4,325 00 Devon cattle, 9 900 00 Ayrshire cattle, 14... 2,100 00 Gallowav cattle, 4 450 00 Jersey cattle, 3 - 400 00 Hereford cattle, 1 100 00 Grade cattle, 3 465 00 2.S98 05 8,740 00 Sheep. Merino, 17 $1 20 GO Southdown, 19 198 00 Highland, 4, 20 00 Cotswold. 1 ram 50 00 Grade, 77.. 385 00 Culls, 7 9 50 r82 50 COLLEGE ACCOUNTS. 17 Sicine. Berkshire, 7 ^195 00 Suffolk, 7 130 00 Essex, 7 170 00 Team. Team horses, 4 _ |550 00 One yoke oxen. 165 00 $495 00 715 CO Wood. 2SQ}i cords 522 53 Compost. 1,500 cubic yards compost, 24 cts. 360 00 Office. Furniture 154 40 Produce. " Wheat, 450 bushels, §120 §540 00 Corn in crib, 1,265 bushels, 30 cts 379 50 Corn in piggeiy, 560 bushels, 15 cts 84 00 Oats 1,079 bushels (estimated), 30 cts 323 70 Oat straw, 15 tons, §4 00 00 00 Wheat straw, 7 tons, §2 00 14 00 Potatoes (rare varieties), 27 bushels. 62 1-27 cts... 16 75 Potatoes (common varieties), 202;^ bushels, 30 cts.. 60 80 Potatoes (small), 55 bushels, 15 cts 8 25 Eoots, 8,960 bushels, 8 cts 716 SO Hay, 961^ tons, §8 00 772 00 Corn stalks, 40 tons, §1 50 00 00 Wool, 8241^ pounds, 40 cts 329 70 Miscellaneous 5 85 3,371 35 §18,038 83 INVENTORY OF HORTICULTURAL DEPARTJIENT. Greenhouse. Plants §2,825 75 Pots 25 00 Furnitm-e 40 00 Coal 209 70 Wood 75 00 §3,235 45 Produce 209 60 Teams 134 50 Office . 19 00 Tools. Carpenters'... §176 35 Pruning 15 75 Garden 626 90 Masons' 7 75 826 75 §4,425 30 SUMMARY OP INVENTORY. Farm, 676 acres, §70 §47,320 00 Buildings 148,473 00 Farm department 18,038 83 Horticultural department 4,425 30 Chemical department (apparatus and chemicals) 4,551 12 Library (books and periodicals) 7,414 34 3 18 STATE BOAED OF AGRICULTURE. Museum $4,G39 05 Apiary, bees, hives, tools, etc 89 83 Boarding hall furniture, in-ovisious, etc 3,210 44 Farm house furniture, provision, etc 721 39 Furniture aud fixtures, college hall $978 45 Mathematical instruments, college hall 200 00 1,178 45 New bridge 800 00 8240,861 75 INDEBTEDNESS OF COLLEGE. Unpaid bills 64,215 36 Salaries due officers 2,435 33 Less interest due from State Treasurer, 2 months $1,600 00 bills receivable 1,313 74 cash on hand and iu treasury 591 25 due on laud sold 800 00 $6,050 69 4,304 99 $2,345 70 INVENTORY ACCOUNT. Property on hand, as per Inventory, taken Dec. 1st, 1875 '. . . $240,861 75 " " '^ " " " " 1st, 1874 231,407 87 Increase $9,453 88 REPORTS OF DEPARTMENTS. PRESIDENT'S EEPORT FOK 1875. As the Faculty make a report to the Board, and as each officer gives an account of what he has done in his department of laboi', my report will relate chiefly to the work especially committed to me. In the eighteen mouths since I returned to the college in May, 1874, I have been absent from college duty less than two weeks in all, inclusive of vacation. One of these weeks was spent with the legislature in their excursion to the Northern Peninsula. The executive duties of the office of president, and its correspondence, are enough to tax the best abilities of one man, but I have shared in the burden of overwork which the poverty of the institution imposes on all its officers, — a bur- den complained of only that the multiplicity of duties impairs the quality of the work that is done. In the class-room I have given tlie Seniors instruction in mental philosophy, in inductive los-ic, and in the constitution of the United States. I have had charge of the daily chapel exercises, and of the Sunday afternoon services. The attention and decorum of the students during these exercises are in all resjiects as good as in churches anywhere. The Sunday afternoon services have been conducted as follows : Feb. 28, by Rev. A. A. Knappen. March 7, by Professor Fairchild. March 14, by President Abbot. March 21, by Rev. T. P. Prudden. March 28, by President Abbot. April 4, by President Abbot. April 11, by President Abbot. April 18, by Rev. D. Crosby. April 25, by Rev. Weed (interrupted by fire). May 2, by Rev. Weed. May 9, by Rev. Augusta Chapin. May 16, by Rev. C. R. Wilkins. May 23, by Mr. Geo. C. Ewiug, of Massachusetts. May 30, by Rev. Mr. Prudden. June 6, by Rev. Mr. Lanterman, of Paw Paw. June 13, by President Abbot. June 20, by Rev. Mr. Spencer. 20 STATE BOAKD OF AGKICULTURE. June 21, by President Abbot. July 18, by President Abbot. July 25, by President Abbot. Aug. 1, by Kev. Mr. Prudden (excliange). Aug. 8, by Rev. Frank Russell, Kalamazoo. Aug. 15, by Rev. N. Reasoner. Aug. 22, by Rev. A. S. Kedzie, Dowagiac. Aug. 29, by Rev. Mr. Prudden. Sept. 5, by President Abbot. Sept. 12, by President Abbot. Sept. 19, by Rev. H. Banwell. Sept. 26, by Rev. Chas. Simpson. Oct. 3, by President Abbot, Oct. 10, by Rev. Edward Ewiug, of Massachusetts. Oct. 17, by Prof. Fairchild. Oct. 24, by Rev. E. Oooley, Jr. Oct. 31, by President Abbot, Baccalaureate. Clergymen whose residence is not given, were from the city of Lansing. At the beginning of the college year, Dec. 1, 1874, I found myself on a com- mittee to prepare the annual report of the Secretary of the State Board of Agri- culture for 1873. After the completion of this rejDort, I took upon myself to prepare the report for 1874, in advance of any authorization. I took to the printers the entire matter for 1873 except the meteorological tables, but inclu- sive of the reports of the State Agricultural Society and other societies, the 22d of January, 1875. The rej)ort for 1874, except the meteorological tables, I gave to the printers the 27tli January, 1875. Much of the matter of this latter report was subsequently withdrawal, and handed to the Legislative committees on. the College, by whom it was retained until after the close of the session, when it was returned to the printers. As the printing of the reports was delayed, other matter Avas added to the report for 1874, in particular the addresses delivered by Dr. Kedzie and myself before the House of Representatives, at the request of that body, an article by Professor Cook on insects injurious to the farm, garden, and orchard ; and an address on Manual Labor, delivered to the students of the College. The first copies of the reports for 1873 and 1874, bound in one volume, were received by us October 30th, 1875. The College made an exhibition of stock, products of tlie vegetable garden, grasses, birds, and insects, at the State Fair. It made a collection of fruit for the National Pomological Society's meeting in Chicago, and is now engaged in collecting materials for the Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia. Many of the ofl&cers have done Avork as members of bodies not connected with the College, but having somewhat similar objects in view. Lectures, i^apers, analyses have been made. I have requested the members of the faculty, in their reports, to give somewhat in detail these outside labors, as constituting a part of what the College is doing in its own legitimate sphere for the State. The College is still subject to some debate as to its sphere of labor and future development. A few of its critics wish it to adhere strictly to what its name imports, and confine itself to agricultural teaching. Others say the Congres- sional grant was not made for agriculture alone, but for the mechanic and other industrial arts, and insist upon a change of name and an enlargement of the scope of the institution. It seems to me that the College has taken the right EEPOETS OF DEPAETMENTS. 21 ground, — a ground, by the way, prescribed by a State law, which no member of the Board or the Faculty had any hand in framing. The requirements for admission are so low that the graduates of the common schools can enter ; the course of study is sufficiently wide to develop a taste for reading in different lines of science, historj^, political economy, and philosophy ; language is studied so as to impart accuracy and facility of expression, — powers essential to any general use of knowledge ; the elements of those sciences which need to be understood as a basis for the study of agriculture and rural engineer- ing are taught more thoroughly than in most other colleges. Of course, the University and other colleges might impart this knowledge to our students ; but only on the very unlikely condition that our students would first attend elsewlicre, and the further condition of furnishing the requisite additional instructors, and means of illustration and practice. These would need to be, — books, perhaj)s, excepted, — about the same elsewhere as here. Our classes are full large for our instructor in each study, and could be added to no other cbllege without a corresponding enlargement of the faculty. Work- ing laboratories in chemistry, and other branches are full, and should be enlarged at the University or in this College, as students apply for room. Such enlargements and mcrease of instructors can ])e made as cheaply to the State here as elsewhere. No colleges in tlie Stats have courses equivalent to our courses in agriculture, botany, horticulture, agricultural chemistry, meteorology, and entomology, while, by large modifications of many of the other studies, they are made to conform to and contril)ute to the main objects of tlie institution. Out of door instruction is constantly imparted in connection with tlie three hours daily man- ual labor required of all the students. The general character of the instruc- tion, and the spirit of the place, is agricultural ; all other studies are made subservient. The name of the institution is of less account than the work it does. It is educating a class of farmers' sons who could not or would not go elsewhere. Although it exercises no censorship over their vocation, it returns to the farms as large a proportion, it is believed, of its graduates as the law schools of our country send into law oSices, or medical schools into the practice of medicine, and forty per cent more than the other institutions of the land ; and is doing this in spite of contrary customs, inherited through centuries. The colleo^e needs enlaro-ement. I believe the entire fund that shall be real- ized from the congressional grant is not more than sufllcient for the support of one good agricultural school. Its agricultural library, its collections of animals, plants, and implements, its experiments, with additional professorships of stock- breeding, veterinary, chemistry, pomology, forestry, apiculture, physics, eco- nomic geology, rural engineering, landscape gardening, will more than absorb all funds it is ever likely to command. Education in this line being new, and as a general thing undesired by the ones who ought to possess it, is the very reason why the college should be made able to render it attractive, thorough, and practical. 22 STATE BOAKD OF AGKICULTUKE. REPOET OF THE FACULTY. State Agkicultural College, Lansing, Mich., Dec. 1, 1875. To the State Board of Agricultwe : The Faculty of the State Agricultural College respectfully submit their annual report as follows : The whole number of students in the College during the year 1875 was 156, viz : Resident Graduates 5 Seniors ..- 16 Juni o rs . - - 21 Sophomores... 21 Freshmen _.. 83 Specials 11 Total 156 The average age of the students, by classes, was as follows ; Resident graduates 24 years Seniors.. 22 " Juniors 19 "• Seniors 19 years Freshmen 18 " Specials 19 " The counties of the State were represented as follows : Alle2ran 3 Lenawee 3 Barry Berrien ., 2 4 Livingston Macomb Monroe Newaygo Oakland Ottawa 2 1 Branch Calhoun Cass Clinton 1 1 - 10 2 4 1 12 1 Eaton - . . -. 2 Saginaw - 3 Grand Traverse 7 Sanilac. Shiawassee 2 Gratiot ...- 2 2 Hillsdale 6 St. Clair S t . Jo s e ph Van Buren Washtenaw Wayne Total from the State 1 Ingham Ionia Jackson Kalamazoo 20 11 4 2 11 8 1 7 Kent Lapeer 8 3 147 Other States than Michigan were repr 3sented t\\\x< : Colorado 1 Indiana .. 5 Ohio 2 Denmark 1 Emmet Fuller, of the Senior Class, and William M. Royce,.of the Freshman -Class, were both removed l^y death while at their homes. They were both REPOETS OF DEPARTMENTS. 23 excellent ecliolars, and much esteemed and beloved by their associates at the College. At "the beginning of the year the student-^, under the authority of the Faculty, formed an organization for self government. It consisted in the choice of a captain, a lieutenant, and a councilman for each of seven districts into which the two dormitories Avere divided. A limited power to make and enforce rules Avas delegated to these officers, subject to the supervision of the Faculty. The design of the organization Avas limited to the maintenance of good order in the dormitories. The organization has been of considerable service to the College. The conduct of students has been good. There liaA'C been no cases of expul- sion or suspension. The students haA'e maintained their oa\ti societies, the Christian Union, and the Natural History Society, with interest throngliout the year. The Freshman class was so large that it Avas divided into tAVO sections in nearly CA'ery study of the year. Under anthority given to President Abbot to provide for instruction addi- tional to that giA^en by the professors, the classes in Histoiy were put in charge of Mr. P. H. Felker, a resident graduate, Avho took them over ancient history and the middle ages in Freeman's Outlines, and gave a course of familiar lectures and readings illustratiA-e of the lessons. In the same familiar way he discussed with the class tlie History of England to the reign of James HI. and some prominent topics of early modern history. Under the same arrangement, Mr. K. C. Carpenter, a graduate of the class of 18 T3, and of tlie Department of CIaiI Engineering in the UniA'crsity of Michigan, has giA'en instruction throughout the year in matliematics, ciA'il engineering, draAving, and astronomy. The report of his instruction is on file Avith the SecretarA', and his name Avas placed in the catalogue as instructor. We are pleased Avith your late action appointing him instructor in mathematics and civil engineering, Tlie scheme of studies for the year past is given in the table beloAV. FIRST TERM.— Beginning February 24, 1875. Class. 8 A. M. 9 A. M. 10 A. M. 11 A. M. Seniors Agriculture. Mental Philoso- phy- Landscape Gar- dening^ 6 Aveeks. French. Moral Philoso- phy 12 Ave eks. Political Econ- omy. Juniors DruAving 6 Aveeks. Rhetoric. Agricultural Chemistry. Physiology 14 Aveeks, Ento- mology. Sophomores. - Horticulture 8 Aveeks. Botany, Geometry, Trigonometry. Elementary Chemistry. Freshmen Rhetorical Prax- is G Aveeks. History. Book-Keeping 6 Aveeks, Physical Geography. Algehra, A class. Algebra, B class. M STATE BOARD OF AGEICULTUEE. SECOND TEEM.— Beginning July 12, 1875. Class. 8 A. M. 9 A. M. 10 A. M. 11 A. M. Seniors Civil Engineer- ing. Astronomy 6 Aveeks. Agri- culture. French. Inductive Logic. U. S. Consti- tution. Juniors Entomology. Zoology. Geol- ogy. Mechanics. Chemical Phys- ics. Meteo- rology. Sophomores . . Analytical Chemistry AnalyticalChem- istry. Analytical Chemistry. Surveying 6 weeks. Ehet- oric. Freshmen Practical Agri- culture. Algebra. Ge- ometry B class. Botany A class. Praxis 4 weeks. Botany, A class. Algebra, B class. Praxis 4 weeks. All the classes have had regular exercises in compositions and declamations. The Senior and Junior clas.ses have prepared original orations, and delivered them before the whole body of students. Alternating with the orations of the Seniors and Juniors, addresses have been given to the students on Wednesday afternoons, as follows : March 10.— Prof . Beal : Physical Culture. April 7. — Pres. Abbot : Manners and Habits. May 5.— Dr. Kedzie : The Soil. May 19.— Prof . Cook : The Eye. July 21. — Pres. Abbot : Manual Labor. Aug. 4. — Dr. Kedzie : Character Developed by Difficulties. Aug. 18.— Prof. Fairchild: The Poet's Place in the World's Workshop. Sept. 1.— Prof . Cook : The Silk Worm and Silk Culture. Sept. 23. — Prof. Beal : The Horticultural Department of the College ; its Plans and Aims. Oct. 6. — Hon. E. E. Trowbridge : Varied Industry the Policy of the Farmer. Oct. 20. W. S. George, Esq. : The Almighty Dollar. The instructions in practical agriculture met witli some interruption, conse- quent on the resignation of Dr. Miles, the 24th of March. His instruction in the College for more than fourteen years has been marked by thoroughness, and by the interest it always awakened in the classes. We are sure it will be remem- bered with gratitude by all the students who have ever been under his charge, and we are glad he is to continue, even though no longer with us, his investiga- tions and instructions in agriculture. June 1, Mr. A. B. Gulley was api:)ointed professor of agriculture in i^lace of Dr. Miles, and at once entered upon duty, and has, so far as the time permitted, made up to the classes the instruction lost by the resignation of Dr. Miles. EEPOETS OF DEPARTMENTS. 35 Commencement exercifes consisted of baccalaureate sermon by President Abbot, Nov. 7,, and the class orations, and conferring degrees on commencement day, Nov. 10. The degree of Bachelor of Science "svas conferred on Oscar E. Angstman, Frank J. Annis, AVilliani L. Carpenter, Albert A. Crane, Charles Goodwin, Dean F. Griswold, Charles S. Ingersoll, Bartlett A. Kevins, Louis D. Niles, Charles H. Parker, DoWitt C. Postle, George A. Royce, Charles W. Shel- don, William A. Smith, and Charles A. Sturgis. After the conferring of degrees, Governor Bagley, at the request of the Pres- ident of the College, addressed the class most felicitously, both as to matter and manner. A short but important portion of the address was thus epitomized by the Flint Globe : " Perhaps the most not.al)le foatin-e of the occasion was the address of Governor Bagley, in which he told the young farmers that their education w^as given them by the State, not for their own personal and selfish ends, hut as a trust to be used for the good of the communitv in Avhich each one dwelt, and of the State at large. The added ahilitv, capacity," usefulness, and manhood resulting to every young man going forth from college halls, is simply au iuvestmeut made by the State, — capital lent, — and it was due to the State, not less than to the student's own self respect, that the interest should come back in the shape of better manhood, better private life, and better public service. " In speaking to the audience, he said that we, as a people, have got beyond grum- bling over taxation for educational purposes. "We have demonstrated that it pays to educate our children and our youths." Each officer has given a detailed account of what has been done in his own department in reports now on file. The Faculty respectfully refer to these reports for further information regarding the instruction, the manual labor of the students, tlie management of the Farm and Horticultural Departments, the museums and library, and apiary. . It may be proper here to notice several organizations of the students. Prom- inent auiong these is the College Christian Union. It has sustained a vigorous Sunday school in the College chapel with the usual accompaniments of song, papers" and books, and its privileges were shared by the households living at or near the College as well as by the students. A bible class in charge of Professor Fairchild, comi:»leted the study of the book of Job, another under Professor Cook, the book of Genesis. Other classes" were in various books of the bible. The union has .sustained a weekly prayer meeting, which has been well at- tended, and has had the following Sunday evening lectures : May 2. — By President Abbot : St. Anthony. August 1. — By Kev. Wm. Wilkins : A Good Name above Riches. August 22.— By Rev. T. P. Pradden : The Manly Tendencies of Christianity. October 3.— By Prof. Fairchild : The Creed of the Atheist. October 31.— i3y Mr. Chas. W. Garfield : Spiritual Forces. The Union has given an entertainment every three weeks during the year, consisting of readmgs, short addresses and music. It has a valuable library, the use of which has been free to all the students. The Society of Natural History has sustained its monthly meetings to the great profit of its members. The attendance upon these meetings has been large, and students have taken upon themselves to notice minutely and report carefully many curious natural phenomena. The collections of the Society and its library have been somewhat increased during the year. The College Cadet Cornet Band and the military company, the Agricultural College Cadets, have added much to the pleasure of the students during the year. 4 26 STATE BOAED OF AGKICULTUEE. The baud and the Delta Tan Delta Society have each giyen a luiblic entertain- ment in the College chapel. The Board has recently made a change in the College terms and order of studies. The ^'ork of planning this arrangement and of presenting it to the Board was committed to Prof. Fairchild. The reasons for the change that weighed with the Faculty were^ as presented by Prof. Fairchild to the Board, in brief as follows: A three term conrse suits better the length of time devoted to many of the studies ; gives a natural division for settlements "wdtli students ; puts Junior Exhibition with its interruption of the usual routine of duty at the close of a term ; brings the first examination of the Freshmen, which is a sifting of the idle and incompetent, nearer the time of their entrance ; gives students more frequent periods of absence for any duties away from College, and equal- izes somewhat the burden of studies in the different terms. Should it be practicable to bring our Commencement Season earlier in the year, this arrangement of terms might facilitate tlie change. The scheme is as follows : The first term to commence the last Tuesday of February and continue thirteen weeks ; then a recess of one week and a term of twelve weeks ; then a recess of one week, followed by the third and last term of twelve weeks. FRESHMEN STUDIES FOR EACH OF THREE TERMS. 1. Algebra, History, Composition. 2. Algebra, Botany, Agriculture. 3. Geometry, Botany, Bookkeeping, Frencli. SOPHMORES. 1. Geometry, Elementary Chemistry, French. 2. Trigonometry, Surveying, Organic Chemistiy, French. 3. Mechanics, Analytical Chemistry. JUNIORS. 1. Mechanics ^, Drawing ^. Agricultural Cliemistry, Horticulture. 2. Entomology, Physics, Ehetoric. 3. Astronomy ^, Anatomy -J, Meteorology, English Literature. SENIORS. 1. Physiology, Agriculture, Mental Philosophy. 2. Zoology, Geolog}^, Botany -A-, Constitution of the U. S., Moral Philosophy. 3. Civil Engineering, Political Economy, Landscape Gardening, Logic. Some modifications of this course of study will be required for the higher classes, in order to adjust the present with the past order of studies. Respectfully submitted, T. C. ABBOT, President. E. G. Bairp, /Secretary. KEPORTS OF DEPARTMENTS. 2? KEPORT OF DEPAETMENT OF CHEMISTRY FOR 1875. To the President of the State Agricultural College: I he^e^Tith transmit to yon a report of tlie condition of nay department for the current year. The year has been a very successful one, distinguislied from many of the pre- ceding years by a more uniform attendance on class exercises by the students. The total number of students who have received instructions in the Laboratory this year is 54, distributed as follows : in general chemistry, 29 ; chemical analysis and manipulation, 23 ; agricultural chemistry, 22 ; chemical i^hysics and meteorology, 21. During the first term in general chemistry I gave a full course of lectures with experimental illustrations, to the Sophomore Class and a few specials ; also a full course of lectures, with experimental illustrations, to the Junior Class, in agricultural chemistry. In the second term I gave a course of lectures on volumetric analysis to the Sophomore Class, and the class made thirty quantitative analyses by volume ; also, to the same class a course of lectures on blowpipe analysis, and the class made fifteen analyses in determinative mineralogy ; also a course of lectures on organic chemistry to the same class. This class had 100 bottles of separate substances for qiTalitative analysi? in the wet way. In the Junior Class, daring the second term, I heard recitations in chemical physics, gi\'ing very full physical demonstrations of the properties of the ** imponderable forces." I also gave a course of lectures on meteorology. EXTRA CLASS WORK. In addition to the required class exercises, I met the Sophomores one evening each week for a chemical conversation, in which the facts and principles of the science were reviewed, chiefly by questions from the students and answers by the teacher. I also met them every Saturday morning for two hours to give them practice in. chemical manipulation. At this exercise the experiments were announced and apparatus furnished, but the student performed his own experi- ments. The students were greatly interested in this exercise, and although it was not a required exercise, it was very rare to find any one absent. I think this kind of instruction might Avitli great profit to the students be extended. and made more complete hereafter. EXPEIsSES AXD RECEIPTS. The bill of chemicals jrarchased last June amounted to $307.50 ; the receipts of chemicals furnished to the students in chemical analysis amounted to 1430, showing an excess of receipts above expenses of more than $130. The cost of chemicals is an expense which is a serious burden to most of our students. While I tliink the students should pay the full cost of what they use, I do not think tlie College should make a pecuniary profit therefrom. I think the advanced fee for the student in analysis should be reduced from $15 to $12. It may be that it may, in the future, be still more reduced; but I am sure that it is safe to make this reduction now. 28 STATE BOARD OF AGEICULTUEE. iTEW APPARATUS. Out of last year's appropriation there were purchased last sj^ring an anemom- eter, with self-recording apparatus, wind vane, Green's Standard Barometer and Eainguage, at a total cost of about 1135. These instruments were obtained through the Signal Service Bureau, and are the same as are used in the U. S. Signal Service. They are very satisfactory in their working. Out of the appropriation of last winter, apparatus has been jDurchased to the amount of $658.38. By a mistake in my estimate of money available to meet this account, the bill exceeded the available means by 1106. This sum I advanced, waiting for means which will become available next year to reimburse me. The ai:)paratus is of superior quality, and was greatly needed in tliis department. PUEN"ACE. I have obtained a new furnace for the laboratory at a cost of about 1180. The maker of the furnace, F. J. Buck, of Adrian, agrees to wait for his jiay till March, 1876. The furnace was furnished at a large rediiction from retail price. It works very satisfactorily. TEXT BOOKS IN CHEMICAL ANALYSIS. During the spring term I re-wrote my hand-book of chemical analysis, mak- ing many improvements and numerous additions. This hand-book has been used as a text book in live Agricultural colleges besides our own. An edition of 250 volumes has been printed for the use of classes in this College. METEOEOLOGICAL OBSERVATIOIsS. A full set of meteorological observations has been taken during the year. These oliservations have now been taken contmuously for more than twelve years. They have been regularly furnished to the Smithsonian Institution, and are used by the Secretary of State, and Secretary of State Board of Health in preparing their annual reports. ASSISTANT IN CHEMISTRY. I cannot in justice pass from the subject of laboratory work, without sjieaking of the satisfactory way in which my assistant has performed his duties. Besides the janitor work for the laboratory, sweej^ing the rooms, building fires, etc., work usually done by a student specially assigned for that duty, he assists in pre- paring chemical and apparatus for class room illustration. He takes all the meteorological observations. When I am absent from the College, still more important duties devolve upon him. When I have been called away from my classes for work in other fields, he has delivered my lectures in chemistry, and taken entire charge of class in chemical analysis, and the classes seem to be entirely satisfied with this arrangement. While he has discharged these difficult duties with entire satisfaction, his salary is less than that of any employe of the College that fills a position of like responsibility. While other employes receive $600, with board, washing, and other personal expenses, amounting to at least $4 per week, he receives only 1600, with no cost to the College for personal expenses. He thus receives a salary of $400 as compared with the salaries of other employes. At some future day I shall ask to have his salary placed on a par with other employes of the College. He is now at the Sheffield Scientific School of Yale College, to fit himself more fullv for his duties at this College. REPOKTS OF DEPAETMENTS. 29 GENEEAL WORK. A good deal of work has been done for the public outside of my regular class room work. Numerous analyses of substances for the benefit of farmers, and in advancing the cause of public health, have been made at this College. Much of my spare time has been occupied in an elaborate investigation of the influence of Paris green when applied to destroy the potato beetle. It may seem that this work belongs more properly to the State Board of Health than to the Agricul- tural Collesre. It is true that this work was undertaken for the State Board of Health, and for the American Public Health Association (in which I was ap- pointed a member of a committee on "the use of Poisons in Agriculture"). But when we consider that j)rominent scientific men at the east have publicly charged that the application of Paris green to the potato crop would poison the soil so that wheat raised on such soil would contain arsenic, and thus be unfit for human food, and when we realize how easily an alarm of this kind might ex- tend to the old world, and drive American wheat from the world's market, we see it is of the highest importance to the farmer to have this question settled, and settled in such a way as will not leave his grain to rot in his barns for want of a market, SAKITARY INSPECTION". During the vacation last fall, at the request of the Board of Commissioners of Penal, Pauper and Keformatory Institutions, I visited the State School at Cold- water, the State Prison at Jackson, the House of Correction in Detroit, the Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb, and the Blind at Flint, and the Eeform School in Lansing, making a thorough inspection of their sanitary condition in regard to ventilation, sewerage, heating, and water-supply ; and made a full report to the Secretary of that Board. This report was published in full in the Report of the Secretary of the State Board of Health for 1874. This tour of sanitary inspection, and the preparation of the report, consumed nearly a month of the vacation. It was disagreeable and thankless work, but it may yet bear fruit in ameliorating the condition of the helpless and pauper classes contained in our public institutions, as Avell as those confined for crime. PUBLIC LECTURES. I have given five public lectures during the year : a lecture before the House of Representatives '"on the relations of Chemistry to the public health and to agriculture ;" an address to the students of the State University at their Medi- cal Commencement ; an address as President of the State Medical Society, on Ozone; a lecture on "The Soil," and another on "The influence of diificulties in stimulating the pursuit of knowledge," both of these before the students and faculty of this college. Respectfully submitted, R. C. KEDZIE, Professor of Clicmistrij. 30 STATE BOAED OF AGEICULTURE. EEPOET OF THE PKOFESSOK OF ENGLISH LITEEATUEE. MiCHiGAK State Agricultural College, > November 26, 1875. f To the President of the College : .Dear Sir : — Herewith is presented a report of the duties and the accomplish- ment in my department during the college year just closing. The usual routine has been departed from by a change in the course of study by which Ehetoric precedes English Literature, and prej^ares the way for greater advancement in the latter study. This change has necessitated two classes in Ehetoric with none in Literature. The Junior class had a course of eleven weeks in Whately's Ehetoric, taking all of cowyic/w;i and jyersz^asio/i, and select portions of style. The attention and diligence shown by the majority of the class were excellent. The class began with twenty members, but lost two by excuse from college. The remaining eighteen passed a satisfactory examination at the close of the first term, June 22d. The Sophomore class took up Hepburn's Ehetoric on August 23d, and con- tinued the study for eleven weeks. The entire book was passed over in recita- tion, and the most of it was reviewed before tlie final examination, I^ovember 9th. This class numbered twenty, of whom two took honorable dismission from college before the close of the term, one was absent for sickness, and one failed to pass. The remaining sixteen attained a satisfactory standing and passed the required examination. The new text-book was found, with a class of such ad- vancement in the course, not so satisfactory as was expected. By especial effort to give abundance of familiar illustration in the class-room its too concise form was made less objectionable, and the interest of the class seemed not to flag in the least. The senior class had the usual courses of twenty-six weeks in French, using Otto's Grammar and Eeader, as edited by Prof. Bocher. The first course of ten weeks was devoted to Part 1st of the Grammar, with written themes daily in review, and closed with an examination June 21st, All but one of the seventeen members showed a passable progress. The second course of sixteen weeks em- braced a short stay upon irregular verbs and idiomatic expressions with written themes, and other daily lessons in the reader with attendant grammar lessons till Part 2d of the Grammar was completed, and some fifty pages of the reader were translated and reviewed. The class also followed the teacher in an easy translation of a comedy found in their reader, and were thus aided in familiar- izing corresponding idioms of French and English. All of the members, six- teen in number, finished the course with a creditable examination, October 29th. The senior class completed Fairchild's moral philosophy, and renewed most of it in the twelve weeks ending May 21st. The class of fifteen members was reduced to fourteen by the death of one of its best scholars, Mr. Emmet Fuller. All of the fourteen passed the required examination. The very brief course in political economy is made more complete by being given in the form of twenty five lectures with reviews. A full list of the topics presented in order and dependence, was kept before the class by chart, while my EEPOKTS OF DEPxVETMENTS. 31 own collection of standard authors in this field, was placed in the public library for the use of the students. The seventeen students who completed this course, passed a fair examination on June 18th. The rhetorical exercises of the Senior and Junior classes, under my charge, have required the oversight in prej^aration and delivery of 144 orations, of which fifteen were for Commencement and nineteen for Junior exhibition. Most of the year the Juniors have had class exercises once in two weeks taken up -with. essays, select readings or declamations, and familiar lectures on oratory, gest- ures, and elocution in general. The amount of time and care involved in these exercises is appreciable by those only whose similar duties have taught them. Every monthly oration has been carefully re\ised (all criticisms being explained to the author in private), and then twice rehearsed to me before final delivery. For public occasions a written analysis of each oration is required before its preparation, and at least four rehearsals precede its delivery. Only the interest and advancement of the students is a real compensation for such work. Full reports of standing in all these classes, absences, examinations, and top- ics of examinations, arc already on file with the Secretary of the College. A voluntary class in Shakespeare, made up mostly of Juniors, was organized early in the year, and has had an average attendance of about fifteen. Three plays have been read and commented upon : The Merchant of Venice, Taming of a Shrew, and Hamlet. The hour from seven to eight of each Thursday even- ing was taken for this exercise. Of the two public lectures that should have fallen to me, one was crowded out by the number of orations required in the early part of the year, the other Avas delivered in the regular routine, as given in the Faculty's report. The general oversight of the library and reading room, gives a set of duties somewhat varied, of which a separate report is rendered. Other duties in College routine have been of a miscellaneous character, mostly in form of committee work. They embrace general arrangements for Commencement and Junior Exhibition, revision and adjustment of schemes for class exercises, adaptation and promotion of the system of student government, devising and adjusting the new arrangement of studies in three terms, and the Tension and publication of the annual catalogue. This last work grew by one suggestion after another till almost an entirely new form was given to the matter descriptive of the course of study and our facilities for instruction. A chart of the grounds after a drawing by Mr. R. C. Carpenter, added much to the effect of the work. A well and a barn have been constructed near my dwelling witli my plans and supervision. Associated intimately with the general welfare is the work of the College Christian Union. Some of my energies have been demanded for this in teaching a large Bible class through the year, giA"ing one of the monthly Sunday evening lectures and two less formal addresses, and rendering some service in the pur- chase of books. I have also given two sermons in the regular Sabbath services at the College. Of work outside the College limits little ha? been possible. I have delivered elsewhere two lectures in aid of general education, and two sermons. The office of Township Superintendent of Schools was almost forced upon me, and I have spent in its duties at odd hours and on Saturdays some ten days' time, — so little that I am ashamed to speak of it. My absence from College duties during the year has been limited to seven days, during which provision was made for my classes through the kindness of President Abbot and Mr. Carpenter. 32 STATE BOAED OF AGRICULTURE. The year, upon the Avhole, has been a satisfactory one, and I find myself less worn than sometimes at the close of a year, because of a more equal distribution of its cares through its different parts. That its duties are yet very confining and include too broad a field of study for the best of Avork, will not be denied by any who have had experience in such departments. That this multiplicity of cares may appear, must be my apology for any apparent minuteness of detail. Kespectfully submitted, GEO. T. FAIECHILD. -«^ EEPORT OF LIBRARIAN. Michigan State Agricultural Collkge, |I Lansing^ November 30, 1S75. f To the President of the College : Dear Sir, — The folloAving is a report of the work, use, and condition of the College Library for the year this day closed : The Library has been open daily during term time, on Sunday from 10 A. M. to 12 M., on Saturday from 3 to G P. M., and on other days from 4 to G P. M. While open it has beeu, as usual, under the care of a student assigned to that duty. This duty has been satisfactorily performed. At the begiuning of the year it was found possible to undertake the work of renewing the catalogue of authors upon the card system, by Avhich the ]3lace occupied by each book on the shelves is found in an alphabetical list of the authors, Avitli the titles of their Avorks. This involved a rearranging, labelling, classifying, and marking for ca?es, of the entire library. The Avork was done nnder my direction by a half-dozen of the Seniors in the first six weeks of the year, and the result has been a great couA'cnience already to the librarian and assistant. A check list of books in the ca^es most in use has also been com- pleted, and found useful. This catalogue thus far extends only OA'er bound volumes. Some progress Avas made in a catalogue of pamphlets ; but for Avant of suitable cases, no arrangement for easy reference could be devised, and the AVork Avas jDostponed. The pamphlets haA'e been classified somewhat, and tied in bundles, Avith a list of contents upon each. The filing of newspapers has been made more complete than ever before. Each year's issue of every paper has been tied by itself AA^ith a list of missing numbers, if any, attached, while a full list of the contents of each file has been fastened to the Avliole. SeA'eral of the most complete have been put in cases, where they can be reached for reference. The files of the Lansing Republican, the Wolverine Citizen, and the Michigan Argus, run back Avith considerable fullness to the opening of the College, in 1857. A full record of books drawn and returned has been attempted by a system of checks posted to individual accounts Avith those using the library. Only a few cases of failure to make the needed record liave come to my knowledge, and those AA^ere the result of carelessness or thoughtlessness. The freedom allowed EEPOKTS OF DEPARTMENTS. 33 the students in use of the books for constant reference in the librar}^, while a great advantage to them, gives room for carelessness. The record thus kept shoAvs the use made of the hooks, aside from the fre- quent references in the library, which are more numerous from the fact that all cyclopedias and works of general reference are of class first, not to be drawn by students. The whole number of volumes drawn was 1,236, of which 275 were in the sciences, 142 in history and biography, 109 in agriculture and horticulture, and the remainder in miscellaneous literature, including bound volumes of peri- odicals. The whole number of persons using the library was 1G4, and the num- ber of books drawn by each varies from one to forty, averaging a little less than nine. The above does not include the use made of the Christian Union librai-y deposited with the college, and consisting of about 150 volumes, which have cir- culated very actively. Donations to the library have been duly recorded and their receipt acknowl- edged to the donor, a written re^jort being presented to the faculty monthly. The additions to the library have been mostly by donations. The greater part of $500 00 ajopropriated for its increase necessarily took the place of portions of other appropriations not available till 1876. This sum refunded, with $500 00 added from the appropriation for 1876, will bring a noticeable increase. A list is already in preparation for purchase before the opening of the next term. The purchases this year, aside from those ordered last year and named in the report of 1874, have been — Johnson's How Cro^DS Feed. Allen's New American Farm Book. Darwin's Insectivorous Plants. The Circle of the Sciences, 2 vols, (by exchange). The number of volumes added by all purchases is 47. Donations already reported to the Faculty ha^-e added 102 bound volumes and 28 valuable pam- phlets, and 10 volumes have come through the exchanges of the Secretary of the State Board of Agriculture. Periodicals put in substantial binding give 55 volumes more, making the total increase : Bound volumes 214 Pamphlets 28 The above does not include some fifty catalogues of books, seeds, implements, stock, etc., for sale. Volumes to the number of 41, from duplicates and a resi- due of old text-books, have been sold, so that the actual increase in numbers is about 200. The desks have been well sujDplied with periodicals, largely by kindness of publishers. The following 24 have been taken by the College upon subscription : The American Agriculturist. The American Chemist. The American Naturalist. The American Journal of Science. The American Bee Journal. The Chemical News. The Country Gentleman. The Canadian Entomologist. The Gardener's Chronicle. The Journal of the Chemical Society. Nature. The Atlantic Monthly. 5 S4 STATE BOAKD OF AGEICULTUKE. Blackwood's Magazine. Harper's Monthly. The North American Keview. The International Eeview. The British Quarterly Keview. The Edinburgh Keview. The London Quarterly Keview. The Westminster Keview. The Nation. The New England Journal of Education. The Detroit Daily Tribune. The Detroit Daily Post. Nearly 50 periodicals of various kinds have been furnished regularly by the publishers ; most of them throughout the year. They are as follows : The Prairie Farmer. The Western Kural. The Western Agriculturist. Scientific Farmer. The New England Farmer. The Canada Farmer. The American Farmer. The American Kural Home. The American Patron. The New Era and Northern Granger. The Boston Journal of Chemistry. The Detroit Review of Medicine. The Peninsular Journal of Medicine. The Essex Institute Bulletin. The Patent Office Gazette. Monthly Keports of Department of Agriculture. Michigan Legislative Journal. The Bee-Keepers' Magazine. Gleanings in Bee-Culture. Moon's Bee World. The Michigan Teacher. The Galaxy. The Penn Monthly. The American Missionary. The Church Union. The Advent Keview. The Health Keformer. Also the following Michigan Newspapers : Ann Arbor Michigan Argus. Charlotte Kepublican. Coldwater Kepublican, semi-weeklj. Flint Wolverine Citizen. Grand Haven Herald. Grand Kapids Saturday Evening Post. Grand Kapids Times. Greenville Independent. Hastings Republican Banner. EEPORTS OF DEPAETMENTS. 35 Hudson Post. Ingham Count}' News. Lansing Journal. Lansing Republican, semi-weekly. Midland Lidependent. Midland Times. Newaygo Tribune. Pontiac Bill-Poster. Sanilac Jeffersonian. Sturgis Journal and Times. Traverse Bay Eagle. • Romeo Observer. Williamston Enterprise. Ypsilanti Commercial. From the American Unitarian Association have come : The Religious Magazine. The Christian Register. President Abbot has furnished regularly The Detroit Daily Free Press, The New York Evening Post, semi-weekly, the Weekly Scotsman, and The School. Prof. Beal has furnished The Cassopolis Vigilant, and occasional numbers of other papers. Mr. C. W. Garfield has contributed The Weekly Free Press. The Librarian has added the Michigan Farmer, Harper's Weekly, Oberlin Weekly News, The American Citizen, The Advance, and St. Nicholas for six months. The whole number of different periodicals thus placed on our tables is 88. What use is made of these can best be Judged by the numbers who have fre- •quented the Library for reading. The general attractiveness of the Library has been increased by a fine map of the College farm, prepared by Mr. R. C. Cai-penter, instructor ; by a curious representation of ancient plowing, an impression of sculpture taken from a tomb in Egypt by Mr. H. Gr. Reynolds, of class ' 70 ; and by the collection of the Natural History Society. Expenditures under my direction have amounted to $498.81. Add to this printing and stationery in general bill of the College, 113.75, and 1,205 hours' labor of students, $117.08, and the total expenditure (including unpaid bills in the hands of the Secretary, $13.75 and $4.25) is $629.64, distributed as follows : Books for library. $185 99 Periodicals, not paid in 1874 39 31 Binding (1874) 137 25 Binding (1875) 83 Vols. @ $1.25 $103 75 2 " repaired® 50c 100 104 75 Express charges 2 95 Postage and exchange 3 73 Printing and stationery : 3000 cards for catalogues $8 00 4000 labels and checks 5 00 blank-books 2 40 paper, pens, ink, gum, tacks 3 77 36 STATE BOAED OF AGRICULTURE. Students' labor $117 OS Books resold 19 42 Total - $629 64 Cash receipts paid tlie Secretary are : From text-books $21 00 duplicates, etc. 32 75 books resold 20 17 The text-books are Prof. Kedzie's Manual of Analytical Chemistry, depos- ited for sale with the librarian, but not charged to the library. Deducting from the total, $629.64, the library receipts proper, $52,92, we- have the actual expense, $576.72, most of which was anticipated at the close of last year, and provided for out of the balance in the Library Fund. For the exact condition of the Library Fund, I may refer to the financial report of the Secretary of the College. The library now contains in round numbers 3,700 volumes, besides news- paper files ; and its value, by very low estimate, is placed at $7,414 34. It is hoped that next year we may be enabled to add effectively to the books of most frequent use, to perfect the catalogue of authors by adding the pam- phlets as arranged in cases to be provided, and to prepare convenient lists of the titles most frequently needed. Respectfully submitted, GEO. T. FAIRCHILD, Librarian. EEPORT OF THE CURATOR OF THE MUSEUM. Agricultural College, ) Lansing, Michigan, November 20, 1875. ) To the President of the College: As Curator of the general Museum, I make the following report : ZOOLOGICAL MUSEUM. This branch of the Museum has made substantial growth during the year, by the purchase of a large number of fine specimens, which was authorized by the present Legislature, pursuant to a recommendation of the Board. These speci- mens have been catalogued and placed on exhibition. MIlSrEEALOGICAL COLLECTION. A veiy valuable acquisition to this part of our Museum has been made through the kindness of Mr. P. W. Norris, of ISTorris, Wayne Co., who has donated a large number of fine specimens collected in Colorado, the College paying the expense of transportation These specimens collected by Mr. Norris are not yet put on exliibition, owing to want of room. EEPOETS OF DEPARTMENTS. 37 » PALEONTOLOGY. Our store of fossils, through the kindness of Hon. S. 0. Knapp, K. C. Kedzie, and several of the students, has been considerably enlarged. These specimens liaA^e been catalogued and placed on exhibition. AECH^OLOGY. For the first time our Museum has taken a start in this direction. The class of ' 78 has given attention to this department, and have already made quite a collection. This has also received substantial aid through donations from Profs. Kedzie and Cook. These specimens have all Ijeen catalogued and placed on ex- hibition. Our f aunal collection in entomology has been put in cases with glass fronts and suspended in the class-room for more convenient study. This proves to be an improvement of which general advantage is taken. In compliance with instructions from the State Board of Agriculture, I pre- pared a collection of mammals, birds, and insects, for exhibition at the State Fair. The arrangement was made with reference to the use and habits of the various animals, and seemed to attract very general attention throughout the entire time of the fair. A paramount need in the Museum is more room. This question of room is one that very soon should occupy the attention of the Board. If some other place could be found for the models in the room east of the Museum, it occurs to me that it would be well to take a part or the whole of that room and devote it to the uses of the general Museum. The following is an account of the expenses incurred in the care, manage- ment, and improvements made for the year : Students' labor, making stands $22 00 " " care of Museum 8 97 Freight and express 6 25 Lumber for stands, etc 3 55 Specimens purchased, eggs and silk moth 1 50 Implements and preservatives 7 73 Total expenses - 147 50 INVENTORY. Estimated valuation at the begimiing of the year $4,000 00 Added by purchase specimens, valued at — 321 50 New stands, etc 24 55 Donations, Indian relics, fossils, minerals, etc - 40 00 84,386 05 A. J. COOK. 38 STATE EOAED OF AGKICULTUEE. REPORT OF THE PROFESSOR OF BOTANY AND HORTICULTURE. To the President of the State Agricultural College : I present the following report of my department for the year 1875 : LANDSCAPE GARDEKING. The nsual conrse of six weeks was devoted to the above subject by the mem- bers of the Senior Class, consisting of fifteen students. The instniction acquired by the text book and by lectures is much assisted by the illustrations on the College grounds. Frequent visits and references were made to different parts of the premises to study the different sorts of ornamental trees and shrubs, singly and in groups. Certain features of the paths, drives, lawns, flower-beds, location and style of the buildings, served as important additional illustrations. This course, aided by the previous practice during work hours, made it possible to fix the principles of this beautiful art in much shorter time and in a more lasting manner than would otherwise be jiossible. Eveiy dollar thus spent in improving our buildings and in other ways ornamenting our grounds, is adding 60 much to what may be called " apparatus." It is not only a good investment to assist the teaching of our students, but in all who visit the College it stimu- lates a taste for rural life which cannot help pelding good results. HORTICULTUEE. At the beginning of the year the Juniors, twenty-one in number, devoted eight weeks to horticulture. The time has always seemed too short for this important study. By the recent change in the course adopted by the State Board of Agriculture, the time is lengthened to thirteen weeks and placed at the beginning of the Junior year. As the Juniors occupy the entire year working in the Horticultural Department, the teaching will now come in just the right place, preceding the practice. Much of the instruction was given by lectures, and, as in landscape garden- ing, frequent visits and references were made to the College orchards, gardens, and green-house. The chief topics considered in the course were as follows : Location of the garden; preparation of soil, grading, draining, laying out, sowing seeds, irrigation, modes of culture, mulching. Tools — care, structure, uses. Construction, composition, management of the compost heap ; application of all kinds of fertilizers ; rotation of crops ; reme- dies for insects, thieves ; construction, management, and use of hot-beds, cold frames, green-houses ; transplanting, harvesting, marketing, packing, shipping, storing. Special crops — onions, celery, cabbages, squashes, tomatoes, etc., etc. Market garden ; seed growing ; double cropping ; protection ; profits ; over- doing ; frequent changing ; experiments. New kinds — how obtained by cross- breeding ; how to begin. Propagation of fruit and ornamental trees, shrubs and herbs, by grafting, budding, layering, cuttings. Best sites for orchards ; kinds to set out, and why; constant care in culture, pruning, killing insects, thinning, harvesting; fruit-houses, cellars, diying. REPORTS OF DEPARTMENTS. 39 Modes and means of classifying fruits by form, color, size, taste, twigs, leaves, flowers, and seeds. Best management, — distance of planting, training, soils, etc., for each com- mon large and small fruit. STUDEisTS' LABOR. Except the employment of a gardener, a foreman, and a teamster, all the manual labor in the Horticultural Department is performed by students. The raising of students' wages for regular work to a maximum of ten cents per hour, has had an excellent effect in stimulating them to greater exertion. Our students work as well as they study, and generally better. A failure to receive the highest wages is usually more keenly felt than a failure to receive the highest marks for recitations and examinations. For want of a mechanic to attend to repairs and improvements of buildings, there is a constant temptation to keep at such work, a few students who are handy with tools. To the disad- vantage of the work, we frequently change students from one kind of work to another, that we may serve all alike, and give all a variety. Three students, one at a time, have had charge of the garden tools and workshop. The tools are all numbered or lettered, and each has its place on or near a corresjDonding num- ber. At a quarter to one, students report for work in a special suit of clothes suitable for garden work. They are assigned to work, and select their tools, which are charged to them in a book by the student in care of the tools, and when through work at four o'clock, and the tools are cleaned and put in place, the number is checked off the book. One student collects and distributes fruit and vegetables at the Professors' houses and the boarding hall. Another drives the cart horse for a month or so. The juniors alternate, two or more at a time, in working six weeks or more in the green-house and on the flower beds. As tlie garden work is so varied in character, and a little at a time in so many different places, we have for several years generally divided the students into small companies, putting the work in charge of a senior or junior, who acts as a sort of sub foreman over the fresh- men. The superintendent and foreman take in charge some special job of im- portance, or one of them visits and advises the several groups of students. It may be of interest to pass in review what all the students were doing in the hor- ticultural department on three days selected from our work book. On April 15th a gang of five Juniors, with the foreman, were pruning apple trees ; six were raking leaves on the lawn, and trimming borders of drives ; three hoed the ridges away from small trees in the nursery ; three worked in the green-house ; two ground tools ; three sowed onions ; one showed visitors about; two cared for the College chapel and recitation rooms; four loaded clay on wagons to put in the bottom of flower beds. On July 15th the work book shows the following distribution of students : Ten raked and hoed over about half of the vegetable garden ; one put Paris green on potatoes ; two rubbed sprouts from apple trees ; two picked peas ; one delivered vegetables ; two worked in green-house ; one looked after tools ; one run the laAvn mower ; two put in a brick partition in the seed loft ; four helped get up hay on the lawn ; one showed visitors about ; the rest worked on the drives. On September 20th four student? picked apples ; two worked at green-house ; three dug experimental potatoes ; five dug muck for compost heap ; one cared for tools ; twelve worked on the drains in new vegetable garden ; six shoveled 40 STATE BOAED OF AGEICULTURE. gravel for drives ; two Avorked on a gutter by a drive ; three worked on a vege- table cellar ; one cared for College hall. BOTANY. After leaving horticulture, the Sophomores resumed botany for ten v/eeks. The course consisted largely in lectures, with some study of Grai/s 6'trucfural and Sydematic Botany, and considerable study of specimens. Five days were given to the principles of classification, including nomenclature. Five days were given to the study of ornamental plants, including those of the green- house ; one day to the movements of plants, as in sleep, climbing, carnivorous habits, etc. ; one day to the eminent botanists ; one day to mosses and liver- worts ; five daj^s to Fungi, as to mode of growth, effect on the air, colors, odors, taste, fertilization, classification, as a cause of disease or a consequence of it, uses, distinguishing poisons from edible, geographical distribution, some special or peculiar kinds, as in mildew, mould, must, smut, rust, bunt, brand, as caus- ing potato rot, mildew of grapes, etc., as found in the interior of living animals. Three days were given to algm or sea-weeds ; two days to geographical botany ; one day to gi/nmospcrnis (pines, spruces, cyca3s) ; three days to our native trees, with reference to their culture and uses ; one day to the distribution of seeds ; one day to the fertilization of plants, as aided by insects, wind, water, etc. ; five days to the grasses ; five days to ferns and their allies ; ten days to other natural orders of most use to the farmer and gardener, as the Leguminosge, Rosacere, Cruciferas, Solanacea?, Umbellifera^, Comj^osita^, Labiateae. At the opening of the second term the Freshmen began pliysiological and moqihological botany. Owing to the unusual size of the class this year, it was necessary to meet the students in two dinsions an hour each, daily. The entire number was seventy-one. The first lessons were to study a pea-plant flower, then leaves, fruit, etc. Other plants were taken in the same way. Students were required to collect and study so as to be able to state in their own words the structure and other peculiarities of the plant. Some assistance was given in the class. After a few weeks books were used. In analyzing plants, they proceeded more slowly and thoroughly than is the usual custom. Our motto is, ''not how many plants can you find the name of, but how well do you know those you study ? " For the best results, the classes were too large. A more satisfactory mode would be to have smaller classes, and have them spend a longer time each day, somewhat as they do in analytical chemistry. Many members of the class become excellent observers, but some of them w^ere too young to grasp Avell the ideas of morphology and microscopic structure. There seemed no way to show the slides under the compound microscopes, except to put them in the hands of two members of the class and station them in the hall or another room apart from the recitation room. Three special "written examinations were had besides one at the close of the term. This enabled me to mark each student as though he were called up to recite forty times in eighteen weeks. The following are lists of questions for the year, whicli were submitted at the close of each subject or term for a written examination : QUESTIONS IN" BOTANY. First examination : two hours given for writing answers. 1. How can we learn the sha2)e of cells? 2. What is cell multiplication? REPOETS OF DEPARTMENTS.' 41 3. AVliat are the peculiarities of cells of pine wood? 4. What is woody tissue, and where found? 5. "What are air passages, and where found? 6. What is chloroph3-ll, and where found? 7. The difference between roots and stems of exogens? 8. What is the plan of vegetation in the higher plants? 9. What is meant Ijy indefinite annual growth? Give examples. 10. Give the morphology of tendrils. 11. Name and detine four kinds of underground stems. 12. What are the points of resemblance between exogenous and endogenous wood ? 13. What is the structure and place of medullary rays? 14. What are pauicled leaves? Give examples. 15. Name and define three w^ays that leaves are arranged in the bud. 16. Structure, position, number, and use of stomata? 17. Early condition of leaves in the bud? 18. Name three very diverse styles of leaves Avhich are called parallel veined. 19. Name several diAcrse forms of stipules. 20. How docs a raceme answer to an umbel? 21. Define the pattern flower. 22. Describe an anatropous OAnle. 23. What is a capsule ? Give two examples. 24. What is the moiiihology of a fig? 25. Name two seeds with and two without alljumen. Second examination in botany. Time given, two hours : 1. What are varieties, and how are they propagated? Ten examples. 2. What are races, and how propagated? Ten examples. 3. What are natural orders ? Name ten. 4. Name and define the classes as taught, 5. Name two botanical characters of high value and two of low value. 6. What is the name of a plant? Who invented the present mode of naming, and what are its advantages ? 7. What are synonyms, and how do they arise? 8. Difference betwween the natural system and an artificial one? 9. What can you say of the movement of any tv\'ining plant and tendril ? 10. The relations of insects, as now understood, to the flowers and leaves of the pitcher plant ? 11. Name and give the country of five prominent botanists not now living, and something they Avere noted for. 12. State the agency of insects in fertilizing some three species of plants? 12. What is dimorphism? 14. Dichagamy? 15. Define ferns, including mode of fertilization. 16. Describe some fungus, its mode of groAA'th, etc. 17. Name three prominent points about geographical botany, 18. Define the grasses, and state their relatiAC value, 19. Name fiA'e of the most useful natiA-e trees for timber and five for orna- ment. 20. GIa'c characters of Lemminosce and state for what the order is remarkable. For some years it has been customaiy for the Eoyal Agricultural Society of 6 42 STATE BOAED OP AGEICULTUKE. England to examine candidates for the society's prizes and certificates, including the life membership of the societ}^ The sets of questions are upon mechanics and natural philosophy, mensuration and surveying, chemistry, agriculture, book-keeping, geology, botany, anatoni}', and animal physiology. It may be interesting to insert here the questions on botany for 1875. Maxi- mum number of marks, 100 ; pass nuniber, 50 ; time allowed, three hours. 1. What are the contents of a growing vegetable cell? 2. Describe the composition of a fibro-vascular bundle in a dicotyledonous plant. 3. Name and shortly describe the different kinds of roots, and explain the function of fleshy roots. 4. What is the nature and cause of the difference between grain and malt? 5. Explain the fall of the leaf. 6. "What are the morjohological differences between the fleshy organs of the following plants : turnip, potato, onion, kohlrabi, sweet potato, and crocus ,'' 7. Give the plan of a typical flower, and explain the meaning of perfect, complete, regular, and symmetrical, as applied to the flower. 8. Explain the process of fertilization among angiosperms. 9. State the nature and development of the reproductive organs in fungi. 10. What are the reasons for having a rotation of crops? 11. Give the leading characters of one of the following natural orders : Jicmuncalacece, Compositce, ConifercB, Oi'aminecB. 12. Describe in systematic method the plants marked A, B, and C. QUESTIOIsS IK HORTICULTUKE. Time, one hour and a half. 1. Location, situation, and laying out of a vegetable garden. 2. Management and application of barnyard manure to a garden. 3. Construction and management of cold-frames. 4. Construction and management of hot-beds. 5. Give a list of common tender plants of vegetable garden (as regards cold). 6. Planting and management of asparagus. 7. How to raise good celery cheapest. 8. How are peaches, apples, grapes, quinces usually propagated, and at what time of year? 9. Best situations for peaches in Michigan, and why ? 10. How to properly set an apple tree. 11. How to properly prune an apj^le tree, young and old. 12. Best remedies for the apple worm. 13. Name the chief points by which varieties of apples can be distinguished by tree, fruit, and flower. 14. What are the chief difficulties in raising pears? 15. How are peaches classified? 16. How to plant and manage a strawberry bed for choice fruit? 17. Advice to beirinners in market orardenins^. 18. Culture of market and small fruit garden. LANDSCAPE GARDE^'ING. Time, two hours. 1. Choice of a place ; fifteen prominent consideration-. KEPOKTS OF DEPAPwTMENTS. 43 2. AVhat to avoid in the management of a place ; fifteen prominent consid- erations. 3. Compactness, with illustrations. 4. Gradation. 5. How to increase the apparent extent of a place. G, How to get a variety ; five important points. 7. Three rules for arranging trees. 8. The formal style and where most suitable. 9. Give ten good shapes for formal flower beds. 10. Adaptation, with examples. 11. Economy in the management of a place ; five requisites. 12. Chief rules for locating walks and drives. 13. Name ten nice evergreens well adapted to our climate. 14. Positions suited to rustic objects. 15. Kules for constructing mounds and banks. 16. Leading points as to size, shape of carriage-sweeps. 17. Advantages and disadvantages of many evergreens. 18. Chief rules for constructing walks and drives after they are located. 19. Errors likely to occur in sodding a lawn. 20. Advantages of a curvilinear roof for a green-house. THE MUSEUM of plant ])roducts has received almost no additions on account of extra work in teaching and other duties demanding time. The collections we possess have been of much service for class purposes. Large additions could be easily made if we had a little time and more room. They would be among the greatest attractions at the College. THE CENTENNIAL EXPOSITION. So far as practicable, duplicate specimens are secured for the College Museum while making collections for the world's fair. This may largely add to our woods, seeds, etc. THE STATE FAIR. In accordance with an invitation of the State Agricultural Society, and a resolution of the State Board of Agriculture, my department made a partial exhibit of its products at the State Fair, including over thirty species of the more prominent grasses and forage plants, about twenty-five varieties of gourds and squashes, seventeen sorts of beets, ten of carrots, four of parsnips, six of peppers, twenty of cucumbers, twelve of sweet herbs, vegetable snails, pea- nuts, other curiosities, two hundred and forty varieties of potatoes ; about sev- enty-five of our worst sorts of weeds growing in pots, a banana in fruit, and many other miscellaneous articles. For the arrangement, quality, variety, and accurate naming, this display called forth much commendation from the crowds of visitors and members of the press. For a fuller notice see Secretary Kim- ball's report. With more means, and less of other things to do, Ave can, no doubt, another year far exceed this display in every respect. Most of my LAST REPORT was published in about 150 papers, including the leading newspapers of our State, some of other States, nearly all the leading agricultural papers of the northern States. This was done by sending advanced sheets, a little at a time. 44 STATE BOARD OF AGEICULTURE. By this means the matter was read by many more peoj)le thau would otherwise be possible. This plan ha? been very highly spoken of by the press, by his Excellency, Grovernor Bagley, and by many private parties, "as just the plan," "an admirable idea,'" "a sensible thing to do," and many other similar expres- sions of approval. OUTSIDE WOEK. Although the duties of my professorship are l)y no means "a mere sinecure," it has seemed necessary for success to spend some time in mingling with the outside world and to take part in various associations by jjapers and discussions. Many invitations for speaking and writing have been declined. The writer has aided the College Natural History Society as its president, by frequent remarks and by encouraging the students to take part. Public lectures have been given at the College to all the students and Faculty on "Physical Culture" and "The Horticultural Dejiartment ;" one at the State Teachers' Association on "Teach- ing Natural History;" one at the Ingham County Teachers' Association on the same topic. One evening was spent with the Farmers' Club at Lena- wee Junction, in a talk on "Grasses," "'Trimming Apple Trees," "Orchard Insects," and in answering questions. One evening was -spent in a similar way at Laml^ertville, Monroe Co. At the State Pomological Society held at Ionia I gave an address on "How Plants Grow ;" at Lansing on '.'Trimming Trees ;" at Monroe on "Fungi." The writer attended the American Pomological Society held at Chicago, where he took an extensive collection of fruits from Ingham and surrounding counties. At the American Association for the Advancement of Science, held in Detroit, he read three papers on "Inequilateral Leaves," "Venation of some Odd Leaves," and "Carnivorous Plants." A fourth paper was accepted l)ut the writer was unable to remain for the time set apart to read ic. A few articles have been given to the Michigan Teacher, American Natur- alist, Country Gentleman, Michigan Farmer, Prairie Farmer, Annual of Kural Affairs, Science, Gossip, etc. Several Aveeks, besides a very large correspond- ence, have been spent collecting and jirepariug timber and various forest products for the Centennial. TOOL SHED AND SEED LOFT. The past summer we have built the shed so long needed for the larger tools. It is placed southeast of the garden barn and near it. The entire new building- is 50 by 25 feet. The lower part is used for tools. A closet four feet wide across the east end, serves the teamster a useful 2rar2)ose as a safe place to lock up some of the more valuable tools. Tbe upper story is divided into two equal portions ; one joined to the chamber of the old barn is used to increase the room for hay from the lawn ; the other half is approached by stairs at the east end, and is used for storing and cleaning seeds, and the like. It is not yet all fin- ished inside, but is already a great convenience. THE GREEN-nOUSE. The number of visitors continues unabated. Last spring a severe hail storm, some of the stones of which were over three inches long, beat out some 800 panes of glass. This made a large additional expense on the green-house, for which there was no provision made. The gardener has made two trips to Mil- waukee, Chicago, and other western towns, where he has at a small expense added largely to our collection of plants. We have received a few from Wash- EEPORTS OF DEPARTMENTS. 45 ingtoii ; a few have been purchased. We now have about 555 species and vari- eties, many of them very choice and some of them rare. A small store room has been built, ten feet square, back of the green-house for boxes, soil, moss, etc. The sales at the green-house could easily be increased by finishing the propagating pits, or by converting the present houses into a commercial es tab- lishment. The latter would not be in accordance with the design of the house. It is now serving a very useful purpose for instruction in botany and horti- culture. Students every day, at all times of day, when not in classes or at work, are seen loitering about the green-house, to study the century plant, cacti, night blooming cereus, palms, tree ferns, cycas, banana, tea, coffee, India rubber, euphorbioe, nepenthes (a queer tropical pitcher plant), acacias, begonias, coccolobia, or some other new and curious or common plant referred to in the lecture room. They are amused and instructed ; they are refined by the influ- ence of the beautiful plants, well kept in the beautiful green-house. It is certainly a great satisfaction to have such an attraction at the College, and a greater satisfaction to have it for illustration and experiment. The flower beds are still quite limited in extent. They have been much im- proved by digging out, to the depth of two feet, the poor sandy soil, and filling in with rich loam, clay and manure. THE LAWX by the green-house and elsewhere has been considerably improved by grad- ing and enriching the soil. There is a vast amount of work still needed in this direction. There is scarcely a square rod of lawns or drives in a condition satis- factory to the one in charge. He does the best he can with his limited means. There has been bnt little done on the drives for want of means. A few stone gutters, a little sodding, a little gravel added here and there, is about all. A few trees have been added. Those previously planted have been well cared for, and with few exceptions have done well. The farm department needed all their mowers when we needed one on the lawn. Our old Buckeye was used up. We purchased a light Champion mower, of Warder, Mitchell & Co., of Ohio. We were delighted with its use in all respects. The purchase of a new mower was not allowed in the estimates a year ago. The account of the tSecretary shows a good deal of students' labor on the ''care of grounds." This includes the keeping in order — in but poor order I am bound to say — the drives, paths, care of shade trees, picking up about buildings, cutting and getting in the hay from the laAvn, etc., etc. There is a good deal of ground to go over, including, when all done, over two and three-fourths (2f ) miles in length of drives and paths. TEAM. One of the horses in our garden team had become unfit for hard work, the other was getting old. It was thought best to sell one at a hundred dollars, and turn the other over to the farm for breeding. This involved some extra expense in the purchase of a new younger team. This necessary change is another not jjrovided for in estimates last winter. Our old cart horse, "Old Prof," is still very good, though slow. He is twenty-five years old this season, and came here soon after the College opened. FORESTEY AKD iyURSERY. This has all been put together in a strip next the road, north of the houses occupied by Dr. Kedzie and Prof. Fairchild. The patch contains long rows of 46 STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTUEE. young forest trees^, growing from seed, as black walnut, wliite ash, sugar maple, hickory, chestnut, Avhite wood, and others, and a smaller quantity of many others which are not likely to prove of so much use for timber or ornament. It also includes a good variety of young plants for samples of hedges, and quite a lot of evergreens and other ornamental stock, samples of many of the rarer shrubs of other parts of the country, also some which grew from seeds obtained from the Kew gardens. It also includes a small quantity of young apple trees. THE VEGETABLE GAEDEif AXD SMALL FEUITS. The yield and quality of most varieties have been better than common. The young curi-ant bushes have borne well and made a nice growth. Thej are planted four feet apart each way, and have always been kept heavily mulched with coarse litter. They now nearly cover the ground. In the spring we shall extend the patch to one-fifth acre. The worm has not troubled the College currants this season, although they have now for two years worked on the bushes near the houses of two professors. We have Red Dutch, White Dutch, Cherry, Victoria, Versailles, White Grape. The new asparagus bed has been consider- ably enlarged, and will be still more next spring. Of strawberries, we raise about twenty sorts : Wilson and Green Prolific for main crop, so far, in mixed rows. In small quantity we have Charles Downing, Jucunda, Triomphe DeGand, French, Emperor, Agriculturist, Downer's, Metcalf, Philadelphia, Wilder. Of the last list named I have nothing much to say on our sandy loam. The Green Prolific yields better than Wilson ; Colonel Cheeney has done nicely ; Michigan very promising ; also Kentucky for late. CLOSETS. Several closets at the Agricultural College are built on ground slightly sloping, with the back side toward the foot of the slope. jS'^o pits or holes are dug. Along the back side are doors turned down horizontally and hung on hinges by the upper edge. The doors usually hang down to the ground, but may be easily raised to remove night soil when necessary. A small room in the same building is filled, in dry time, with dry muck, loam, or dust from the road. Clay is bet- ter than sand. Every day, or every other day, or twice a day, a small quantity is shoveled into each closet. Copperas-water, lime, plaster, or other deodorizers, are also used in addition to dry earth. Every fcAV weeks, or even once or twice a year for a small family, the night soil is carted away to the compost heap. If cared for as above there is almost no unpleasant odor ; nor is it more dis- agreeable to cart away than so much manure from a barnyard. The advantages of some such mode are : The closets may be cheaply made and kept nearly free from unpleasant odor ; they may consequently be placed much nearer the house, or even connected with it ; there is no pestilential filth filtering into adja- cent wells, or otherwise causing ' 'mysterious epidemics" in the family; the com- post heap is increased in value. Something like this, or better than this, must some day become the universal custom in all the best private houses, schools, railway depots, and hotels. Slops from the kitchen can be run upon a heap of dirt which may be occa- sionally shoveled over and changed after it has absorbed a good deal of filth. It is then avcII worth removing to use as a fertilizer. It is better than running underground into a pit Avliere tlie odors generally find some Avay of escape, often into the kitchen, on account of some defect or stoppage of the pipes. The use of dry earth is vastly better than to Avash the filth into a scAver, . EEPORTS OF DEPARTMENTS. 47 tlieuce into a, river to coutamiuate the air and water. A little mouse, a dead frog or squirrel, or a few dead worms, will spoil the water of a well so every one will smell it and refuse to drink it. The same subjects are completely deodor- ized by a small shovelful of dry earth. OUE COMPOST HEAP. The position of the main compost heap has been removed to the south of the 1)arn and privy, and near both these buildings. AVe have another pile started near the new vegetable garden. They are constructed on the same plan as last year, which suited us so well. We believe a plenty of manure is a good thing for the farmer and gardener to have, that most of them cannot succeed with- out it, that nearly all can very easily increase the quantity and value two fold or more. ^Ve prefer to use on the garden manure that is well rotted or decom- posed. The place for the compost heap is made nearly flat, but a little highest around the edges. On the bottom is placed a layer of muck, six inches or a foot in thickness. In all the management of manure, we have constantly in mind the high price of labor of men and teams, and the cheapness of various kinds of farm and garden produce. The muck is drawn but a short distance, — forty rods, perhaps. To economize team work, we use two wagons, having one loaded while the other is on the road. Carts with wide tires are better. The muck is taken from the flats to the yard and leveled a little after it leaves the dump boards. This first layer usually remains several weeks in the early part of summer until it becomes pretty well dried out. The kind we use at present, and like very much, is taken from the fiats of a brook where it is covered with a very tough sod of sedges and grasses. Tlie sods we cut out Avith very sharp spades, and use, of course, with the rest of the muck. The muck is black and loamy, such as would produce a bountiful crop of grass every season after good drainage. On the bottom layer of muck, after drying out, we place a layer of manure of equal thickness with the muck. Then another layer of muck, and usually wait awhile for it to dry out, if it had not been dried out at the muck bed. The latter we should always do, if we had far to haul the muck. The manure we get is furnished by our horse-barn, where are kept four horses, by the privies well supplied with dry earth, by purchase or gift of parties m Lansing, three miles away, or elsewhere. We like to draw it in summer, because then the roads are best, the manure is dry and light so we can. draw twice as much in value as during spring or autumn when we have to draw much Avater which is to be had at home without price. J\Ianure is more easily obtained at this season. We cannot always get it in winter. Besides, we can then mix it with muck, and manure composted in August, or earlier, is in good condition for use by next spring ; while, if we draw it in winter, or later, it is often not in good condition till summer. We draAV all the manure we can find time to, preferring, for our sandy soil, to use half muck to half manure, instead of clear horse manure. The muck, alternating with the manure, prevents it from burning out and wasting. Again, the use of muck saves much hand labor of turning the manure to prevent overheating. So highly do I value something for this purpose, and as an absorbant, I would use good soil if I could not get muck, and poor soil if I could not get good soil. By the middle of September we want the heap six or eight feet high, keeping the top flat or a trifle dishing. Perhaps it is not as good for the heap, but to save labor we drive onto it with teams to unload. We add tops of potatoes, tomatoes, and any similar refuse, except weeds which may contain seeds. The 48 STATE BOAKD OF AGEICULTUEE. better the feed given to animals the better the manure. We do not Judge of its value by its looks. That made from animals fed on straw and marsh hay (sedges), may be some better rotted and look well, but it is much less desirable tlian that vrhich comes from a livery stable, where the horses have plenty of grain. In the fall or Avintcr or spring, Avhenever we have help to best advantage, the whole pile is turned once or more. In spring vre shall probably have 400 loads of fine manure for the horticultural department, — manure suitable for any crop, ilower bed, or lavrn. A\'e like to have a large pile of muck dried and under shelter, to use about the dung heap in winter. Our plan of managing a com- post heap is about the same as employed on the farm proper. On August 30 the farm compost heap was 60 by 72 feet and eight feet high, Avell packed down by horses and cart. The two piles for the horticultural department are about as large, though not yet quite so high. Thus far in the vegetable garden we have only attempted to raise summer vegetables enough for the farm house and boarding hall. "\Ye have raised too many varieties for profit. Next season we intend to make the experimental plats and all the sample beds in a part of the old vegetable garden east of the greenhouse. Three and a half acres near the houses of the Professors have been set apart, at present, for an enlargement of the garden for vegetables and small fruits. It has been well ditched four feet deep ; some of it graded and all plowed. On this large piece we intend to raise onions, raspberries, strawberries, and some other stuff. This will demand some extra work, but the increased quantity of produce will pay for the extra Avork. CULTUEE AInD WEEDS. We believe in thorough culture, and act out our belief. The garden is all worked over about once in five days. The soil is light, so rains do not interfere, except for a few hours. Weeds are watched very carefully by passing over the ground after cultivating, raking, or hoeing. We know how long it takes to go over an acre of clean garden, or one where the weeds are only pricking out of the soil. We have not tried the experiment of one patch in weeds hoed once in two or three weeks, and the other of equal size kept clean by Avorking the soil every four or six days, but according to estimate the cheapest way is to cultivate often. It doesn't require one-foitrtli the labor to go over a garden with a steel- toothed rake or hand-weeder often, as above stated, as it does to weed several times during the season after weeds get up six inches or more in height. Aside from the smaller amount and ease of the work, the increased yield, quality, and earliness of the produce are all on the side of thorough culture. It seldom pays to keep a garden hoed only once in three weeks ; it nearly always pays well if thoroughly tilled. The ground is kept perfectly clean after the crop is taken off, so the soil is not getting filled with seeds. It is a veiy common error with farmers or gardeners to leave the garden or field until the weeds make a show, instead of going over the ground often. Since preparing the above, several months ago, I find '*a practical hint on weeds" in the Countiy Gentleman, evidently from J. J. Thomas, who is ever making apt contrasts between the best and the poorest way of doing things. By his watch, a bed of flowers containing 80 square feet is raked once a week in four minutes for each raking, and for May, June, and July, 48 minutes. In another bed of equal size it required over an hour to clear all out by hoe and hand. This must be repeated every three weeks for three or four months. REPOETS OF DEPARTMENTS. 49 requiring lialf a day's work to keep the Aveeds under for three months, and even tlien doing it imperfectly. It is a little difficult, at first, to make the students work the ground all over thorouglily if they can see no weeds. However, they do prefer working a clean garden to one filled with weeds two to six inches liigli. A single season of this practice generally convinces them all tliat it is the cheapest Avay and that .it bnngs the most profit. We cultivate mostly Avith a horse one Avay, making the rows long and straight. The students' Avork in the garden is mostly done with a steel-toothed rake and hand cultivators. We take great pains to remoA'e any pigweed, jrai'slanes, etc., Avhicli may have escaped previous notice. They contain seeds in immense num- bers before nui,ny people are aAvare of it. One of the students last season esti- mated tliat a large, Avcll-groAAii plant of purslane contained 1,250,000 seeds. The ground is carefully freed from Aveeds till A\dnter. None are allowed to seed the ground. ThcA' appear now to be running out. XOTES ox OXIONS. A roAV ten feet long of each sort Avas planted on sandy, leechy soil, all treated alike. Harvested Avhen cold Aveather came : AVeight. Naseby's Gray Mammoth, poor and unripe 9 lbs. 10 ozs. AVhite Globe/ mature 10 " 10 " Early Ked Globe, mature, nice 12 " 12 " Giant Kocca, immature, uneven _ . 15 '•' 5 "^ IraproA'cd Large YelloAv Cracker, mature, medium 8 " 9 " NeAv Queen, earlv, amoimt to little .. *' 12 " White Flat Italian, verv early G " 8 " Early Flat Red \ 7 '' 3 " Southport Late Globe, good size, not mature 14 *' 14 " Yellow Strasburgh 12 " 14 " Marzajole, one half scullions 3 " 11 " Large Round Giant Maderia, large, immature 15 " 14 " White Portugal, Avliite pink stripe, pretty 8 " 8 " YelloAv DanA'ers, mature 11 " G '' Red Wethersfield, not all mature, good yield. The quality Avas not tested. EXPERIMENTS AVITH POTATOES. PLAN OF PROCEDURE. Planted on surface Planted J^ foot deep.- Planted 1 foot deep Planted in ridge 6 inches high Planted seed end of tuher Planted oi^posite end Planted, pruned as last year.. . OrdinarA" culture. Size. Large. Largest. Large. A^ariable. Large. Medium. Small. Medium. Xumbcr. Many. Medium. Medium. Medium. Medium. FeAv. FCAV. Medium. Xo. Hills. Lbs. ]2 11 51>| 52 10 28 10 mi 37 9 33 11 10 40 Per Hill. 4 7-25 4 8-11 2 4-5 41-9 2 15-22 4 In the plat pruned there Avas cut irregularly about one-third of the tops at three different times. 50 STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. In the experimental garden the lots are all labeled as planted ; a plat of the whole garden is drawed off in a book. The labels and book are both consulted at the end of the season, when tlie crops are harvested, measured, or weighed. The soil is light sand, with leecliy bottom, naturally poor, but made very- fair in quality by manuring for about ten years with crops every year. Superpliosijliate, purchased of Jarvis & Hooker, at Detroit, was put on alter- nate sections of ten hills each, with the following results : The dressing con- sisted in putting a tablespoonf ul in each hill (two feet apart) — rows about three feet apart ; and then forking the soil and superphosphate thoroughly together, just before dropping one-third of a medium tuber in each hill. So far as we know they were all treated precisely alike. In these four columns the plats were in juxtaposition, which arc here placed side by side. bresee's king of earlies. early siiaw. With Dressing. "Without Dressing. With Dr pssing. W'ilhout Dressing. 22.50 lbs. 29 lbs. 12 lbs. 14 lbs. 18.20 " 18.20 " 12.75 ^. 15.25 4; 22.50 " 17.20 '• 12.75 4. 12.50 (( 12.25 " 20.25 " 12.75 (; 12.75 i; 18 18 9.50 fi* 12 <.'- 6.50 5.20 (; 8.75 6.75 (. 93.45 lbs. 102.G5 lbs. u (4 18 c; 20 <%'* 18.50 (i 23 (4 16.50 u 20.75 4( 18.25 (; 21.25 4. 20.50 (; 23.75 44 23.50 •• 21.50 44 20.75 '• 24 44 18 lbs. 21 4* 225.45 253.25 lbs. The results, favoring no use of superphosphate, may be owing to an improper mixing in the soil. TRIMMIKG POTATOES. A single experiment last year with Campbell's Late Eose showed an increased yield where the tops were about one-third cut off at three different times during the growing season. A row of Peerless potatoes was divided into six equal parts of 23 hills each. Alternate parts were trimmed three times, as above stated, otherwise they Ave re treated alike. Trimmed, 23 hills yield 51 13-lG lbs. 23 '' " 45 5-16 " "- 23 " '' -- 40 4-16 " 137 6-16 lbs. 23 hills not trimmed yield 59 13-16 lbs 23 '' '' 64 13-16 23 " '' 5113-16 " s. 176 7-16 This season, with our soil and treatment, it did not seem best to trim Peerless potatoes. EEPORTS OF DEPAETMENTS. 51 EARLY EOSE. 25 hills trimmed as above yield 55 lbs. 25 " " " 77 8-16 " 25 " " " - 57 3-lG " 189 11-lG '' 25 hills not trimmed yield 72 6-16 lbs. 25 " " 98 " 25 " " - - G71-1G " 237 7-lG " This season, with our soil and treatment, it did not seem best to trim Early Kose potatoes. CAMPBELL'S LATE ROSE. 25 hills trimmed as above yield 30 2-16 lbs. 25 " " '' 28 4-lG " 25 '' " " .- - 317-16 '' 89 13-16 '' 25 hills not trimmed yield 52 4-16 lbs. 25 " • " 33 14-16 " 25 '' " .-- 3114-16 " 118 The experiments in trimming Campbell's Late Eose potatoes give a result very much like that of Peerless and Early Eose, — not favorable to trimming. COMPARATIVE YIELD OF MANY SORTS. A moderate sized tuber was cut in three pieces, and one piece used for a hill. All were treated alike on soil apparently quite even, of rather poor sandy loam : NAME. TIELD. Early White 21Ibs. 1 Early York 16 7 Early Favorite. 15 13 Carpenter's Seedling.. 15 4 Pond's Seedling 15 3 Early Goodrich... 13 S White Rose.. 12 2 EedJacket 11 6 Seedling Mercer 11 6 Ice Cream 11 5 Minnesota Seedling 11 Early Vermont 10 14 Early White 10 14 Great Britain 10 14 Elder 10 10 Bradford's Seedling 10 G '• Hillard 10 4 Dana's Seedling 10 2 Alpha 10 2 Breesee's Prolific 10 1 British Queen 9 14 oz. XAME. YIELD. Early Pinkeye 9 lbs. 10 oz. De Bliss.. 9 8 Harrison 9 8 Dover 9 7 Union 9 7 Early California 9 G Extra Early White 9 G Eed Streak 9 5 Early Prince 9 5 Bulkley 9 4 Buckeye 9 3 White Mountain S 14 New Kidney 8 14 Strawberry 8 12 Prairie Flower 8 12 Early Snowball 8 11 Peerless 8 11 Snowflake 8 11 Early Samaritan 8 10 Climax 8 8 Hampshire Seedling 8 8 53 STATE BOAED OF AGRICULTUKE. XAHE. y Kansas 8 tb Davis.- --. S Early Manley - 8 Napoleon S Alaska Blue 8 Victor 8 Galva 8 Blue Mercer S Black Diamond 7 Early Lilac .- 7 Excelsior 7 Peacliblow 7 Fluke 7 Great Western 7 Breesee's King of Earlies 7 Snap Dragon 7 Jackson AVhite 7 Eed 7 CoAV Horn 7 jS'ansemond 7 "Week's Seedling. 7 Early Minnesota 7 Irish Cups 7 German Russet G King of Potatoes 6 Whipple's Seedling Early Velvet 6 Sutton's 100 Fold Fluke 6 Heason 6 State of Maine 6 Fancy Red 6 Saddling Rock 6 Philadelphia 6 Adirondac 6 Mercer 6 Ohio 6 Ohio Beauty 6 Early Russet 6 Early Henry 6 Vandevere Early Cottage 6 Chili No. 2 6 Sandy Brown 6 Hollyhock-. G Dagger 6 Duke Cumberland... ._ G Early Don 6 Pigeon Eye 6 Noyes 6 Dwight- G Compton's Suriprise G Central City G Worcester Seedling. 6 Early Golden G Early Handewarth G Mercer G Ohio Mercer G Early Indiana _ 5 Early Peach 5 Jones' Seedling 5 Pinkeye 5 Unknown 5 Late Rose 5 York Seedling 5 lELD. , 5 4 3 2 2 1 1 1 12 12 12 12 S 7 G G 5 4 2 2 2 1 15 15 15 15 13 12 11 10 9 9 9 9 9 8 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 4 3 o 2 2 1 1 1 oz. 15 14 14 13 13 12 12 NAME. YIELD. No Blow 5 lbs, 12 oz. Cheenev 5 12 Whig.."^ 5 11 Flour Ball 5 11 Patterson's Albert 5 10 Forest Rose. 5 9 Ohio Chenango 5 9 Lapstone Kidney 5 8 Strawberry Mercer 5 8 West Windsor. 5 8 Titicaca 5 7 Multiply 5 7 Caster 5 Old Kidney 5 Breakfast 5 Davis Seedling 5 Early Stevens . 5 Lincoln Red 5 Dyckman 5 Rough and Ready 5 Fancy - 5 Ketchum's Seedling 5 Old Flesh-color. 5 White Sprouts 5 Western Chief 5 Early Purple 5 Grey Russet 5 Jenny Lind 5 White Clinton... 5 Scotch White 5 Guernsey 5 Mercer Seedling 5 Granite State 5 Concord, - 5 White Rock 5 Patter«on's Regent 4 Early Scotch Cottage 4 Early Pearson 4 Worcester 4 OldRed 4 Quinby's Seedling 4 Prince of Wales 4 Blue Pinkeye 4 Black Chenango 4 Coffee Mine..! 4 Dr. Bretonnian.. 4 Early Mohawk.. 4 Ohio Russet 4 Ash-leaved Fluke 4 Calico. 4 Carter's Early Foreign 4 Garnet Chili 4 Skerry Blue 4 Early Shaw. 4 BrownelPs Beauty... 4 Alexander 4 Raspberry Leaved 4 Early Queen 4 Early Dexter - 4 Unknown 4 Monitor 4 Early Kidney '^ Ash-ieaved Kidney - 3 Se arch Warrant - 3 i G 6 G 6 G 5 5 4 4 4 4 3 2 2 2 1 1 1 15 15 14 14 14 12 12 12 10 9 9 9 7 6 5 5 4 3 3 2 1 1 1 1 15 13 EEPOETS OF DEPAETMEXTS. 53 NAME. YIELD. Snow Ball... 3 lbs Eetl Kidney 3 Purple Mercer 3 White Chili 3 Badger 3 Early Victor 3 Irish American 3 Missouri White 3 Acme 3 Delraahoy 3 Early June .- 3 Patterson's Golden 3 Royal Ash-leaved Kidney... 3 Gardener 3 Yankee Flat 3 Andes .-. 3 Early Handel 3 Irish Blue 3 Mona's Pride 3 Patterson's Seedling 3 Moll Eoimd 3 Eochester Seedling.- 2 White-eyed Peach Blow 2 Patterson's Blue 2 Scotch Blue 2 Mexican 2 Amazon 2 Snow Flake 2d 2 EarlyWhite.. 2 Bulklev's Seedling 2 .12 12 9 9 8 8 8 oz. 15 U 13 13 12 12 12 12 NAME. YIELD. Spotted Shaw 2 lbs. 9 oz. Late Peach Blow 2 9 Coldbrook 2 7 Black Kidney 2 7 True Monitor 2 G Early Eace Horse 2 5 White Club 2 5 Early Sovereign 2 4 Ash Top Fluke 2 2 Pink Eye.. , 2 1 Pink Eye No. 2 2 Prince Albert 1 11 Heins 1 9 Tyrell Xo. 1 1 7 Merino 1 7 Frankfort 1 7 California 1 7 No. 2 Bush 1 G Milky White. 1 5 Cherry Blow 1 4 Scotch Seebec. 1 3 Tayagua 1 1 Kidney 14 Late PinkEye 12 Farmer's Delight .. 7 Mountain June PinkEye G Early Pink Eye G Bradford's Eed .. Casco h u The experiment would be of very inucli more value, had we been able to in- crease the number of hills of each sort. We intend to repeat the.se trials on a larger scale next year. In looking over the comparative yield it must be re- membered that the different sorts vary with the season, or the particular spot in which they happen to grow. Any careful observer knows that the same variety will often vary much in the same row. Again, it must not be forgotten that we cannot determine the merit of a potato by the scales or by the measure. Some of those yielding ])est are of very jioor quality. Some will be good in one season and j)oor in another. Some will be good on one soil, or in one part of a country, and poor in another. Last year the Climax exceeded all the others in yield, but it was watery and unlit for human food. To arrive at correct conclusions as to the relative merits of potatoes, is a com- plicated question, not so easily decided as, at first thought, might be supposed. ]S'EW Y.^.EIETIES. Twenty new sorts of potatoes have this year been obtained from seed. Some of them were \ery large and promising for the first year. A large quantity of seeds from the balls of about 50 sorts has been saved for experimenting next year. . Seeds of two species of wild gooseberries have been planted to get new varieties. In one case the berries came from a wild plant which had been thoroughly cultivated a year or two. Seeds from a plant in a vigorous unnat- ural condition, it seemed to me, might be more likely to produce plants which would be of new varieties. Seeds have also been sown of raspberries, of six sorts of currants, of grapes, of huckleberries, of wild or black haw, of straw- berries, some of which were artificially crossed by fertilizing Wilson wdtli pollen of tlie_ Michigan. 54 STATE BOAED OF AGEICULTUEE. GRAPES. The youug vines bore a little this season. We have the following sorts on a terrace sloping to the south : Ives' Seedling, Rogers' 19, Hartford Prolific, Concord, Clinton, Rogers' 15, Rebecca, Rogers' 43, Taylor's Bullet, Cottage, Rogers' 3, Croton, Maxatawney, Rogers' 5, Martha, Goethe, Creveling, Rogers' 4, Brant, Delaware, Eumelan, Norton's Virginia, lona, Bradfield, Concord Seedling, Delaware Seedling, C}Tithiana, Allen's, Diana, Lady, Adirondac, Canada, Black Hawk, Israella, Concord Chasselas, Concord Muscat. We have increased the amount of the terrace so as to have two hundred or more vines. We shall add twenty or more of the most promising new sorts next spring. The Sweet Cheery trees are all dead but two. PEACH TREES. Two small peach trees were lieavily pruned where they had grown in boxes, straw was put over each, and then a barrel set over that during winter. Four other young trees were covered in corn shocks, three others were tipped over and covered with sandy soil in which they grew. Those covered with the corn shocks and with barrels all died, one of those buried lived, and now has blossom buds on it. By mistake the trees were uncovered in April, a month too soon. I shall leave the dirt on in future till about the time to plant corn. THE APPLE ORCHARD. The experiments in culture have been continued as begun several years ago. The evidences look more and more strongly every j^ear against the propriety of leaving trees, in our section, in grass. They have stood the severe winters no better ; they have borne no better ; the apples are smaller ; the trees grow more slowly ; a greater proportion of trees have died than of those cultivated each year. So marked have been the results, that we have plowed up aboiit half that part of the orchard which was left in grass. The most of the orchard has been plowed and cultivated till summer, then sowed to oats. We have been able this season, to comiDlete tile draining the orchard. This is an improvement long needed. For want of it many trees have died, and many more are injured for life. In vacant places, were old stumps have been taken out, it has been very difficult to make trees grow. Large holes have been dug out in the fall previous to setting trees in sjn'ing. Unleached ashes, at the rate of 65 bushels per row, were placed evenly over tlie ground, on the tenth and eleventh rows from the east line, and on the third, and fourth, and fifth rows from the west side. In September, a heavy mulch of old hay and litter was put about eleven trees, the mulch extending half way to other trees. The trees mulched were on the east side, in. the sixtli row from the south line of the orchard. A large load of well-rotted manure was placed evenly under each of three trees, half-way to other trees each way. Tlie trees so manured were : A Northern Spy in 5th row from south and 11th row from the ea^^t ; Bakhvin, 7th row from the south and 10th tree from the west ; Seek-no-Further, 11th tree from south and 2d from the west. It is intended to keep up the mulching and manuring of these trees for a series of years in a uniform manner. The trees were lightly trimmed in the spring. A few more apples were crossed while in flower, as years before. But few seeds were obtained. An effort was made to cross Siberian Crab apples with the » EEPOKTS OF DEPAKT3IENTS. 55 common fipplo. No fruit set. For want of any other place, the squashes, gourds, anil pumpkins were planted in the orchard, scattered about remote from each other. The crop was poor. The apple crop was almost a failure, as was generally the case in this part of tlie country. The codling moths were few. They were caught by paper bands, as last year. But very few moths wintered about the orchards ; indeed, we were not able to find any alive m the spring. They were all frozen to death, — sometlung we never heard of before. CLOSING KEMARKS. AVe have but a limited number of experiments to report. It is not for want of any to try or any desire to ti*y them. The reasons are these : So much work in the class-room ; all labor unskilled and frequently changhig and uncertain ; the constant care in person in looking after student labor in afternoons : the want of nieans to employ constant skilled help to direct students or to perform experiments. If the people want experiments of much extent, or cost, or value, they must say so, and see that means are provided. At present our force is not adequate to cany on Avell the ordmary routine of class-room, gardens, green- liouse, orchard, drives, and lawns. I cannot close this report without returning thanks to the students who have worked in the Horticultural Department. Most of tliem have shown inuch zeal in their work; to Oscar Terrell, wlio has for two years so quietly and faithfully employed his time with tlie team in a great variety of places ; to Mr, James Cassady, the gardener, who has been so watchful and skillful, day and night, summer and winter, in his charge of the green-house ; and in an especial degree to my foreman, Mr. Charles W. Gartleld, for his work at the State Fair, in charge of our collection, for his watchful care of Avork, and in teacliing during my absence, and at all times and places, never forgetting the Ijcst interests of the students and all others. Respectfully submitted. A\' . J. BEAL, Prof. Jjotany and Horticulture. DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS AND ENGINEERING. jVIiciiigan State Agricultural College, Dec. 7, 1875. To President Abbot : I have the j^leasure of submitting the following report of the Department of Mathematics and Civil Eno-ineerins: : CIVIL ENGINEERING. Instruction was given in civil engineering to the Senior Class for a period of twelve weeks. Wood's revision of Mahan's Civil Engineering was used as a text book. The class passed over, under my direction, nearly the whole of the text S'6 STATE BOAED OF ACJEICULTUKE. book, paying especial attention to those portions devoted to the proi^ertics of building materials, mortars, limes, and cements, strength of materials, processes of framing, principles of masonry, and the cliapters on roads, canals, rivers, and bridges. The course in the text ))ook was supplemented by lectures on the strength of materials, principles of framing, strength of frame, strength of bridge, and the jirinciples of road-making. The study of bridges was greatly advanced by numerous detailed drawings presented by the leading bridge companies of this country, enabling the students to observe how the theoretical principles are actu- ally put into practice. The valuable collection of mechanical models was of material ^alue, giving an opportunity to shoAV (especially in the case of rail- road cars, locomotives, and switches) a reduced form of the oljject under con- sideration. Practical problems were given in framing and bridge designing, and the stu- dents vv'ere required to bring in original designs of the rerpiisite strength to suit the conditions given. ASTROXOMY. Astronomy followed ci\ il engineering, l)ut tlie allotted time of thirty recita- tions was shortened to twenty-four, at the request of the class, who desired to pursue to a greater extent the study of practical agriculture. As the time was so limited, I deemed it advisable to pay attention only to the mathematical principles which underly the science. Using AVhite's Astronomy as a text book, we passed over thoroughly the cliapters devoted to the general phenomena of the heavcnsyi definitions of terms used in astronomy, astronomical instruments, refraction, parallax, methods of measuring, size, density, velocity of rotation, and centrifugal force of the eartli, Foucault's pendulum experiment, methods of finding the latitude and longitude of a i)lace, orbit of the earth, distance from the sun and hoAv found, the consti- tution of the sun, sidereal and solar time, equation of time, the calendar, the moon and its })henomena, lunar and solar eclipses, and a general description of the planets. I also afforded tlic class an opportunity, which most of them improved, of obtaining a consideral)le knowledge of descriptive astronomy. I met them usually three nights in a week on the roof of the boarding hall, and gave all of them an opportunity for observing the planets through the telescope now at the College, and pointed out to them the principal stars of the dift'erent constella- iions. Instructian was given in Drawing to the Junior Class the first t^ix weeks of the term. Warren's Projection Drawing was used as a text book. Especial attention was paid to principles of projection, to intersection and development of solids, and to shades and shadows. I required each student to draw at least two hours per day, he being under my supervision a portion of the time, and to finish ten plates, including a title page. The plates Ave re of a uniform size, and were dra-wn on Whatman's paper -w-ith India ink, and were required to be above a certain standard, both as regards execution and accuracy, the object being to promote habits of neatness and exactness. I also gave one week's lec- tures on the principles of perspective drawing, but time did not permit the stu- dents to finish any plate in perspective when under my supervision. SURYEYIXG AND LEVELING. Surveying and Leveling Avere taught to the Sophomore Class at the beginning: EEPOKTS OF DEPAilTMEXTS. 57 of tlio second term. Davics' New Surveying was used as a text book, but being so poorly adapted to the wants of our course, most of the instruction Avas given by lectures. The course embraces theory, adjustment and use of instruments, rectangular surveying, as practiced in government surveys, areas of land, divid- hig land, finding section corners, retracing old lines, topographical surveying, r.'iilroad surveying, section and cross-section leveling, computation of earth-work, and setting slope stakes. Particular stress Avas laid on tlic field Avork, no student being considered through the study Avho had not assisted in at least four compass surA'eys (in one of which he should run the compass) and run at least two lines of levels. I* spent a portion of two Saturdays Avitli the class, running a preliminary line of railroad between the College and Okemos village. Each student Avas required to furnish himself Avith a fcAV first-class draAving instraments, and to make two plates of actual surveys, Avith ornamented titles, the plates as large as a AVhatman sheet of royal size Avould permit. In accord- ance with my suggestion, CAcry three or four students united and purchased a KeuiHe and Esser's book of specimen letters. The Avork of the class in surA'eying this year Ava-?, considering the limited amount of time at command, highly com- plimentary to the class. The whole class Avorked Avith so much enthusiasm and energy that I believe each and CAcry one receiA'cd sufficient instruction as to be capable of doing all ordinary sur\'eying. GENERAL OK ANALYTIC GEOMETRY AND CONIC SECTIONS. The principles of Analytical Geometiy and its application to straight lines, and the Conic Sections, Avere taught the Sophomore Class for a period of six weeks, to fill the time that usually has been dcA'oted to Practical Agriculture. Instruc- tion Avas given entirely by lectures. From the amount of benefit to be derived from this study, and from the fact that no great proficiency can be acquired in mechanics, astronomy or civil engineering without a thorough knoAvledge of analytic geometry, it is to l)e lioped tliat this study Anil take a permanent place in our course. TRIGONOMETRY. Trigonometry Avas taught to the Sophomore Class six weeks, using as a text Tbook Eobinson's Trigonometry. This year's Avork was unusually good, the class passing thoroughly over plane and spherical trigonometry. GEOMETRY. Geometry \\as taught eighteen Aveeks, — six Aveeks to the Sophomore Class and tweh'e weeks to the Freshman Class. The entire course in geometry is com- pleted in twenty-four Aveeks, twelve of Avhich are usually given in the I'resliman year and tAvelve in the Sophomore year : but the present Sophomore Class had taken previous to this year eighteen Aveeks in geometry, so that there remained but six weeks for its completion. The Sophomores commenced at Book VII. of Eobinson's Geometry, and fin- ished in the allotted time both plane and spherical geometry. The Freshman Class used as a text book Olney's Geometry, and passed thor- oughly over and Avere examined on the first 120 pages. On account of the large size oi' this class it Avas necessary to separate it into tAvo sections. Each section, howcA-er, passed over the same space. 8 58 STATE BOAKD OF AGEICULTUEE. ALGEBRA. From the fact that a great number of the students are acquainted Avitli the elements of algebra when they enter, it was found necessary not only to divide the class, but it was thought best to provide different text books for the two sections. The time allowed for the completion of algebra is the same as geometry, viz. : twenty-four weeks. The advanced section, numbering 40 students, used as a text-book Olney's University Algebra, and passed over an extensive course, including differentiation and the higher theoretical algebra. The other section, numbering 44 students, used as a text-book Olney's Com- plete School Algebra, and nearly completed the book, thereby acquiring a suf- licent knowledge of the principles of algebra to creditably finish the remainder of the course. RnETORICAL. The Ehetorical exercises of the Freshman Class were not put mto my hands until late in the first term, and it being necessary to be absent several times I could not meet the class regularly. For these reasons I deemed it best to make no report of the first term's work. The second term I met the class regularly on Thursday afternoon at 5. The exercises consisted of declamations and essays, or, when the student wished, I allowed orations to be substituted, credit- ing one oration equal to one essay and one declamation. On account of the size of the class each student was required to prepare one exercise only in four Aveeks, thus requiring during the term of each student two essays and two declamations. Generally speaking the exercises have been well prepared. The declamations have, without an exception, been well learned, and some of the orations have been really excellent. OUTSIDE WORK. During the greater portion of the year I have spent from three to five after- noons of each week in doing work not included in my regular College duties. The character of that work is shoAvn by the following imperfect enumeration of the more important pieces of work. In accordance witli the desire of the State Board, I acted on the committee for rebuilding the Cedar river bridge, and prepared the design and working dra^wings from which the bridge was built. I have done a considerable amount of surveying of farm lines, boundaries of fields, and under-drains ; in fact, I have done all that profitably can be done with our present instruments. For the purpose of registering the notes of surveys, and also for mapping, I obtained a book, and had copied therein all maps and notes of surveys that were in exist- ence. I have also made two large maps of the farm and grounds, one of which is intended for class use, and is to be kept in the library ; the other is intended to be sent to the Centennial Exhibition. It is hardly necessaiy to remark that for want of a proj^er book heretofore, the records of several surveys heretofore made were lost, and it was necessary to make a resun-ey of several old drains at a considerable expense to supply such omissions. A topographical survey of the farm and grounds is very much needed for educational purposes, but such a survey cannot be made with our present instraments, and it is to be hoped that facilities for performing this work will soon be furnished. Very respectfully yours, K. C. CAKPENTEK. KEPORTS OF DEPARTMENTS. 59 REPOET OF IXSTEUCTION. Agricultural College, } Lansing, Michigan, Xoi\ 20, ISTo. )" To the President of the College: I herewith present my report of instruction for the year 1875. ANATOMY AXD PHYSIOLOGY. The course in these studies to the Juniors differed Httle from tliat of tlic pre- vious year. The instruction was entirely by lectures, and the attention and progress left little to be desired. The time was felt to be too short by both myself and the class, as many important subjects had to be omitted. EXTOMOLOGY. Our time in this study was only half that given to the above, being but seven weeks. The results, considering the short time, were exceedingly gratifying. More attention was given to dissection under the microscope than ever before. Two or three students met me each day for this purpose, devoting an hour to the work. The results of these investigations were figured on the blackboard, and explained by the pupil making them to the class. The work in the apiary was mostly performed by members of the class under my supervision. The experiments were performed largely by members of the class, and were watched with much interest. ZOOLOGY. The course in this study was essentially the same a? that of last year. GEOLOGY. This subject occupied the last five weeks of the j'ear. Instetid of lectures we made use of Dana's Revised Text Book of Geology. We went over it all except djmamical geology. The principles of dynamical geology, and the special geology of our State, were given in lectures in connection with historical geology. During the course we visited the outcrop at Grand Ledge. The whole number of students in this course was twenty-four, three of Avhom were pursuing a special course. MECHANICS. During the second half year the entire Junior Class, together with one Senior and one special, recited to me in mechanics. We studied the mechanics of solids and liquids as given in Snell's Olmsted. BOOK-KEEPING AND PHYSICAL GEOGEAPHY. During the first half year I gave the Freshman Class instruction in the above mentioned studies. The first six weeks the class passed through Mayhew's Practical Book-Keeping. During the remainder of the year the class completed Guyot's Physical Geography, omitting those portions whicli receive attention 60 STATE BOAED OF AGEICULTUEE. elsewhere in the course. This large class, numbering seventy members, -^-ere invariably attentive, and their progress left little to be desired. RIIETORICALS. I had charge of the Sophomores during the entire year in rhetoricals. Each student was required to present an exercise every two weeks, which consisted of essays, alternating with declamations. The students were granted the privilege of presenting original declamations, which were made equivalent to two of the , above. "We thus had, especially during the last half year, a large number of orations. The class were earnest, attentive, and for the most part made excellent progress. PUBLIC LECTURES. I have given during the year two public lectures at the College. Subjects : The Eye, and Sericulture. OUTSIDE WORK. During the year I have lectured once before the Ingham County Farmers' Club, twice before the Ingham County Teachers' Institute, and three times before the State Pomological Society. Among other executive work for the last mentioned society, I had charge of the fruit exhibition at the State Fair. I sent out over three hundred communications, urging people to exhibit, and supervised exclusively the arrangement in the halls. It gives me pleasure to state that this effort Avas not fruitless, as the magnitude and arrangement of the exhibition were universally praised. During my week's absence at the Fair my classes were continued through the kindness of Prof. Beal and Mr. Carpenter. I was also absent for a week in August attending the meetings of the Ameri- can Association for the Advancement of Science. I not only attended the general sessions, but also all those of the Entomological Section, including the field meetings. I cannot overrate the benefits of this experience, which will act as leaven in my instruction for all the future. Such ojiportunities are schools where the progress is so rapid and the instniction so varied, that I am sure they should never pass neglected. President Abbot and Mr. Carpenter kindly took charge of my classes during my absence. Early in the summer my time was very much occupied in writing an article for the Eeport of the State Board of Agriculture on Injurious Insects, an elaborate article on Beneficial Insects for the Illustrated Annual of Rural Affairs, and in writing articles for the State press, many of which were in response to inquiries received from farmers and fruit growers. Such inquiries necessitated a large and laborious correspondence. Although this sometimes took from the energies which perhaps belonged to my classes, yet it is a demand v>-hich it is difficult to neglect ; and the labor seems to be appreciated, and is, I trust, not wholly devoid of good. RESEARCJI. I have during the year made investigations in several directions, which have served to make my instructions more complete. THE CODLIKG JMOTII. 1st. The laiwae seldom ever drop from the tree. This A\'as determined by set- ting tubs partly filled with water under the apple trees. 2d. These larvffi do REPORTS OF DEPARTMENTS. 61 not leave one fruit to complete their growth iu an other apple. This was ascer- tained by putting affected apples in a box with sound ones, by examining affected apples and finding that the size of the opening and of the larvae always corresponded, aud by repeated examination of wind falls. 3d. A con- firmation of the previously asserted truth that fully one-half of the larvae never descend to the ground at all. 4th, It is exceptional for any larvse to pupate after September 1st. 5th. The first brood of moths continue to come forth till about the 8th of July. Gth. Fine wire gauze placed in the windows of otherwise tight apple cellars will entrap very many moths that would otherwise escape and work mischief. 7th. Sweets will not attract the moths in the least. This last point I have tested fully. I have placed differently scented sweets all about the apple trees, and while I have caught hundreds of other moths I have never secured a single one of these. ROBINS AND BLACK-BIEDS. I have made a thorough and persistent examination of these birds, not only by closely observing them, but by repeated examination of the contents of their stomachs, and have arrived at the following facts : 1st. These birds are exces- sive insect eaters throughout the entire summer, 2d. It is very rare to find beneficial insects in their stomachs. 3d. A principal part of their food con- sists of cut-worms and the white grub. Hence, the advantage of fall plowing to destroy the cut-worms, and the exceeding ravages of the white grub in those sections where f rait is a specialty, and where the birds are destroyed to save the fruit. APIARY, I have also made several experiments with the bees, which Avill more properly appear in the report of the apiary, A. J. COOK. KEPORT OF FARM DEPARTMENT. To the President of the A(jricultural College: I herewith submit the following report : The year has been a somewhat eventful one in this Department, as there have been several changes made. The resignation of Prof. Miles and the accepting of his position by myself on June 1 had some disadvantages, as the work for the year was already begun and well nnder way. The resignation of the old foreman, Mr. Hume, and the consequent appointment of a new foreman July 8, added to the disadvantages for the year. Early in the spring onr bridge was taken away by ice, which necessitated for a long time a detour of from two and a half to three miles to reach the work, with the teams, on the back part of the farm. A float bridge was constructed for the use of the students till a new bridge 63 STATE BOAED OF AGKICULTURE. could be built. Then new approaches had to be constructed and the oki ones raised for use. The work now done is believed to be permanent. The season has in many respects been a peculiar one ; the spring was very late, and snow and ice came late, and retarded much of the work. At the close of the season copious showers of rain fell, and cool weather with early frost, injured somewhat the corn crop. The drouth in September injured the root crop, making them small, and not as large a crop as usual. I take pleasure in calling attention to the account, as reported by the Secre- tary, of receipts and disbursements, yiz. : Total receipts, etc $5,489 16 disbursements, including students' labor 4,807 33 (( Balance gain and increase of inyentorv 1681 83 » There has been of student labor i:)erf ormed 12, 795 43 Less work for College 691 59 -a^ Student labor joaid for on Farm Department 82, 103 84 The fields will l)e considered in their proper order, and first Field No. 1. This field was first in hay, and after mo'wing was pastured. The June grass had nearly driven out the tame grasses, and the result was not veiy satisfactory. Plaster was sown on the field to the value of 81 50 Hay produced at 18 per ton. 64 37 Student labor $3 39 Men and team labor 16 81 Total - - - - . $20 20 Field Xo. 2, adjoining the College grounds, v»'as broken wp but not so-wn or planted to a crop. The labor was as follows : Student labor $3 95 Men and team labor 66 90 Total $70 85 Field No. 3 was planted to potatoes, 3 acres, and 20 acres to roots, Swedes turnips, and a small plat of two kinds of beets. 1st, The potatoes were of two standard varieties, viz., Peachblows and Early Kose, and a few hills each of Brownell's Beauty, Compton's Sui"prise, and Extra Early Vermont. They each did very well. A few rows were planted with bone super-phosphate in the hill, a few more with it sprinkled on. Some was also sprinkled on 6 rows of roots, but no perceptible difEerence could be seen this year, either in quantity or qual- ity, that did not occur on other portions of tlie field. The Early Eose were planted May 15, and the Peachblows and others on the 20th. They were har- rowed as they made their appearance, and then cultivated and hoed twice after- ward. The following is a summary of the potato crop : EEPOETS OF DErAKTMENTS. 63 Preparing ground and i:)lanting _ _ 134: 8 7 Seed 14 40 Manure 40 50 Cultivation L 23 15 Harvesting 61 58 Paris green . — 3 75 Total cost 1178 25 The yield was 571 bushels of assorted and 93 of small potatoes ; counting the latter at half-price, they cost 29 cents, nearly, for large, and 14^ cents per bushel for small ones. The root croji was sown after plowing and harrowing three times, then running a smoothing land-plane over the ground to level, picking the stones, etc. The roots were sown in drills 30 inches apart, and then thinned to 1 foot in the drills after coming up. They were cultivated three times, once in a row, and hoed twice, — once to thin them, and once to eradicate weeds. They made most of their growth after the heavy rains in the first week in October. The table shows the result : Preparing ground, and sowing |120 63 Picking stone 4 09 Seed 14 00 Cultivation 122 IG Harvesting 184 69 Manure 40 50 Total cost ,...,. I486 07 The yield was 9,100 bushels roots, 123 being beets. The tops were credited at $10, leaving $476 07 as cost of roots, or 5 1-5 cents, nearly, 'per bushel, or $24 30 per acre for cost of raising. The potatoes cost $59 42 per acre, with a less yield, — roots yielding 458 bushels per acre, and potatoes 221^ bushels. The following is a summary of the field : Student labor , . $318 10 Men and team labor 233 07 Seed . 28 40 Manure 81 00 Paris green 3 75 Total cost $664 32 Cr. By 9,160 bushels roots and 664 bushels potatoes. Field No. 4 was used to raise soiling corn partly, and partly for pasture. Tlic cost of tillage was charged to stock at cost of production : Student labor $35 26 Men and team labor 27 80 Seed corn. . 2 00 Total 165 06 It served to keep up the milch cows when the pastures were dry in September, and in October after frosts had come. 64 STATE BOARD OF AGEICULTURE. Field No. 5 was in wlieat, at a cost of seediug of $109 72 ; liarYesting and threshing, $i75 48. Seeding to timothy and clover seed, $25, and labor, $1 47, making total of $2G 4? for seeding. Other labor on the field was 834 39 for threshing out the remainder of oat crop of '74. Repairs of fences, 81 GG. The tield Avas Or. by 20 tons straw at $2 per ton §40 00 401 bush, wheat at $1 20 481 20 Total $o21 20 Summary of labor on held : Student labor $45 73 Men and team labor 51 23 Total $9G 96 The field, being 17 acres, had 24 3-17 bushels per acre from machine. The straw was very rusty in some parts of the field, and the ice in Annter killed at least one acre, on which there was no Avheat. The wheat was sown vnth drill north and south, at the rate of 1^- bushels per acre, of the Deihl variety. Field No. G was in pasture during the entire year. The labor was in relaying fence and fixing Avatering trough : Student labor $39 37 Men and team labor 19 50 Plaster 3 75 $62 62 Field No. 7 was determined on as the next to clear, and the labor was mostly on wood. It was pastured with sheep and yoting cattle : Student labor . . _ $216 23 Men and team labor 91 55 Total labor $307 78 Value of Avood in field, as per inventory , 522 58 Field No. 8 Avas in meadoAv : Student labor $120 23 Men and team labor 75 00 $195 23 Cr. By 69 tons 13G0 lbs hay, wortlu $554 92 There Avas soa\ii on the field plaster to the value of $2 81, and after second crop was mown, timothy seed, 6 quarts per acre : value, $14 83. It Avas then harrowed Avith iron-tooth harroAvs, to help the seed get covered, and is intended for meadow next year, the ncAv timothy to take the place of cloA'er killed out the preceding winter. Field No. 9 had still some stumps, trees, and stones, and during the year has been cleared, so that there is no danger in running a reaper on any part of the field : cost, $73 34. This field Avas soAvn Avith oats in the spring, and followed Avith Avheat, Avhich crop is now on the ground. The account of oat crop is as follows : EEPOETS OF DEPARTMENTS. 65 Preparing for and sowing |59 36 Seed 37 69 Harvesting 144 07 Cost of crop ^231 12 Cr. By 20 tons straw ^80 00 '*■ 1,250 bu?hels (estimated) . . 151 12 Total ^231 12 This makes the oats cost now about 12 cents per bushel, and when the remainder of the crop is threshed, will only increase it to 13 cents. The field being 23 acres, the cost of tillage, harvesting, and threshing will be only about ?ilO 60 per acre when all are threshed. The oats threshed show its that they were estimated fully too low. The west end of the field was sown with 590 lbs Excelsior, and the east with 1,G25 lbs. of White Schoomen, and as far as observed the latter were the best yielders this year, both to the straw and per acre. Both varieties weigh 40 lbs per bushel of measure, of veiy fine quality. The crop would have been much larger were it not for a severe shower that lodged them badly in many portions of the field and necessitated their being- mown by hand, thus costing much more for harvesting than if cut by reaper. The wheat crop was sown Sept. 14 to 18 inclusive. The ground was jilowed immediately after taking off the oats, and was finished Aug. 18. The ground Avas harrowed both ways and left till the oats should sprout. It was then culti- vated with wheel cultivators each vfnj, and then planed with a land planer, when it was in condition to sow, A severe shower at this juncture compelled me to cultivate the field once more, and harrow once, which was done before sowing. The field was sown to five kinds of wheat at the rate of 1^ bushels per acre, except the Asiatic wheat, which, on account of largeness of berry, did not sow over 1 bushel jior acre. The wheat was sown in this order, commencing with the east end of the field, and drilled in north and south with a Beckwith roller drill: Wick's wheat, Asiatic Avheat, Arnold's Gold Medal, Delhi, and Clawson, of the following quantities : 1st, 220 lbs ; 2d, 45 lbs ; 3d, 90 lbs ; 4th, 1308 lbs ; 5th, 273 ibs. The east part of the field was rolled, the west left unrolled. The east received 8 quarts timothy per acre, the west G quarts, which sj^routed and grew- well. The following is the summai*}" : » Preparing ground and sowing 1118 06 Seed wheat 41 58 Cost of wheat $159 64 Timothy seed- 19 77 Sowing same 98 Cost of wheat and seeding $180 39 This gives nearly §7 85 per acre for cost of sowing wheat and seeding to timothy. The following is a summary of labor performed on the field for the year : 9 66 STATE BOAKD OF AGKICULTUKE. Student labor 1118 91 Men and team labor 276 90 $395 81 Labor on oats $203 43 '' " Avheat 118 06 " " seeding. 98 '' ^' per improvement 73 34 Total labor 1395 81 Field IS'o. 10 was green sward and plowed for corn, commencing April 30. Commenced planting May 21, and finished May 23, except a small part of the field that required more labor to get ready. The back part of the field was very rough, and the '^muck-bed," a portion of which was very bad, was not got into crop. About 20 acres were planted to White. Dent variety. Com- menced cultivating May 31, as soon as rows could be seen. Tlio corn was planted in drills, four feet apart, and thinned when first hoed. The crop was cultivated three times, twice in each row, and hoed twice. The corn was cut and shocked on Sept. 13, 14, and 15, mostly. Twenty -seven hours' work fin- ishing on the 16th, but even then the corn was not fully ripe, and the low ground in the v\^est part of the field had been touched with frost. We just escaped the heavy frost that followed two or three days after. The following is a summary of the field account : Student labor $244 82 Men and team labor 266 21 Seed 3 38 Total $514 41 Preparing ground and planting $114 56 Cultivating 112 50 Harvesting 205 52 Labor on crop $432 58 Seed 3 38 Cost of crop $435 96 Per. improvement 78 45 Total $514 41 The field is credited as follows : 40 tons stalks $60 00 1220 corn (good) @ .244^ 297 84 640 '' (soft) @ .122 1-16 78 12 Total $435 96 The harvesting includes the barns, for winter use. The harvesting includes husking and cribbing corn and stacking stalks near EEPOETS OF DEPAKTMEXTS. 67 The cost per acre of this crop was $21 79, nearly. Field Xo. 11 was in permanent pasture for the year, and had considerable ■clearing and stumping done. The field will be fenced from No. 13 next year, and is proposed to be put in corn, or at least a large part of it. The labor is this : Students' labor $63 04 Men and team labor 10 05 Total - _ _ $72 09 All i^ermanent improvement. Fields 'No. 12 and 14 combined and called 12, vras also permanent pasture. It had some clearing of swamps and logging done. Also an old ditch was reopened, •deepened, and "widened. It was then extended into the large swamp in No. 12, making a ditch 174 rods long. In many jDlaces the labor of cleaning and enlarging the old ditch was more than to have dug a new one. The labor is as follows : Labor on wood cut in 1874 to haul to boarding-hall $153 29 Cleariug, and repairing fence 82 04 Ditching 184 68 Total $420 01 Student labor $296 11 Men and team labor 123 90 Total $420 01 This field, as well as ISTo. 11, had grown up since chopping over, largely to thistles and mullens, that required mowing and burning, and that labor is charged as clearing. It is proposed to extend the large open ditch in No. 12 into and across No. 11 and 13 swamp, thus getting it diyer for future operations. Of other labor of the department we have, 1st, the cattle barn, where we cut and prepare the feed for stock, and this year, after Sept. 30, did most of our grinding with a Challenge feed mill sent here for trial. The summary is : Student labor $81 29 Men and team labor '. 327 77 Total labor $409 06 Produce consumed 1,675 28 Labor and produce _ $2,084 34 Less manure 252 00 Cost for year $1,832 34 Charged to stock. The necessity for better jjower, either steam or something equivalent, is strongly felt, as, often, with the power we have, the work is slowly and ineflS- ciently performed. With the increased acreage of productions soon to be grown 68 STATE BOAED OF AGRICULTUKE. xipon the farm, "will come increase of stock to be kept, more cutting, thresh- ing, and grinding, which should all be done at home and by our own labor, and will demand more and steadier power than a two-horse tread-power. The horse -bam has been kept this year at an expense, as follows : Student labor 123 11 Men and team labor 1 32 70 Total 155 81 Hay and grain 393 02 Total $448 83 The student labor is mostly in cutting hay by hand ; the men and team labor in going to mill, time consumed in getting team shod, etc. The sheep-bam expense is as follows : Student labor W7 11 Men and team labor 19 65 Total labor $36 76 Hay and grain 347 51 1384 27 The granary had some labor performed, as cleaning wheat for market and seed, and shoveling over grain till thoroughly seasoned : Student labor $10 37 Men •. . 15 $10 53 The cast granaiy should be thoroughly overhauled and made vermin-proof during the coming year. The west one is now so. The piggery had some labor on yards to keep them in order. The labor of care of pigs was charged to stock. Student labor 62 07 Men and team labor 2 10 Total • U 17 Fifty Essex pigs of nearly the same size and age, have been purchased for feeding experiment the next year. The office expenses were as follows : Student labor 80 83 Men and team labor 1 20 Total labor .$2 03 Goal used 29 98 Stationery, blank books, stamps, etc 15 85 Total $47 86 The farm department general account is as follows : REPORTS OF DEPARTMENTS. 69 Student labor 166 85 Men and team labor 97 43 Total labor $164 27 Oil 3 60 « — Total $167 87 Summary — Construction of float and bridge |39 03 Painting witli crude oil 6 04 Making bridge approaches 66 60 Miscellaneous 56 20 Total $167 87 The miscellaneous includes team work for department, in going for various things connected with it, as getting bills in each month, looking up seed pota- toes, after debts, etc., etc. Tlie stock account Dr. and Cr. is given in tlic receipts and expenditure^?. The summary of hiljor is as follows : Student labor |;317 24 Men and roam labor 684 60 Total labor 11,001 93 The milk not needed at the hall and other places was made into butter at a cost of $3 78 to Doc. 1, and the butter sold and credit given stock. There is a slight decrease of inventory from the preceding year, owing to the large sale of stock to the ]S^el)raska Agricultural College, besides the ordinary yearly sales. The work in tho sho}) was not veiy large for this year, as there was very little building and repairing done. The following is the summary : Student labor $80 44 Men and team labor 5 25 Total 185 69 Kepairs $28 81 Care of tools 56 88 Total $85 69 The student labor in the sho]) has been very satisfactory, although more costly than regular mechanic labor. It is in the main instructive in its nature. The Board having ordered tho department to exhibit at the State Fair, 20 head of cattle were taken care of for ton days previous in stables,Ho accustom them to the change of feed, and then taken to the fair with 10 sheep. The labor was as follows : Student labor $33 56 Men and t<>am labor 30 90 Total $64 56 This is charged to the College account, as it was not within our^^department. 70 STATE BOARD OF AGEICULTUEE. During the summer a large compost lieap was constructed of alternate layers of swamp muck and barn-yard manure, in the proportion of about three parts of muck to one of manure. The heap contains 1,500 cubic yards, and the account is as follows : Student labor $105 71 Men and team labor G5 93 Manure 187 50 Cost $359 14 Or about 34 cents per cubic yard for the compost. This A\dll cost about 55 cents per cubic yard delivered on our back fields, such as Nos. 8, 9, and 10, and from 35 to 45 on the fields nearer the barns. The remainder of the labor Avas done for the college, and is divided as follows : Special duty $19 23 Mapi:)ing farm and grounds 33 34 Plotting drains 19 44 Building account 94 07 Grading and breaking around new houses 310 91 Orchard drains '. 381 71 Eepairing fences 15 03 Labor on lawns 74 49 Teaming for College 33 73 Straw for covering cistern and banking 3 50 Total $773 33 Cr. By hay from lawn 81 74 Tlota $691 59 For which the department has credit. The special duty Avas showing visitors about our buildings, green-house, and grounds, and frequently so many were here at one time that more than one was required for this duty. The drain records Avere heretofore on detached records, but a book has been procured into Avhich all drain notes are coi^ied, and descriptions of the land of College Farm proper. On the pages opposite the notes a neat plat is made of the drain or parcel of land described, Avith the accompan}ang scale. Tliis Avork, as aa'cII as that of making tAVo maps of the farm (one for the Library and one to be sent to the Centennial), has been in charge of Mr. E. C. Carpenter, instructor in mathematics and civil engineering. The grade at the new houses was begun rather late in the season, and pushed as fast as the means at our command Avould alloAv. The grading Avas nearly completed and the adjacent land broken up for frost action and spring AVork, and is then to be seeded doAvn, it is hoiked, much smoother than before. The labor on laAvns and drives in Farm Department was more than paid for by hay receiAcd from that part mown, leaving a profit of $7 35. In the general work of the department there have been some changes. Two carts and harnesses Avere j^urchased, which facilitated A'ery much the moving of muck and earth for short distances. The first half of the year the Avages Avere at the old rates ; the last half the regular laljor Avas paid for at a maximum of 10 cents per hour, and 13|^ cents for extra. Tlie increased interest of the stu- dents Avas at once apparent, and, in my judgment, the work was increased REPORTS OF DEPARTMENTS. 71 nearly one-half in my department, I would, however, recommend that 10 centa per honr be paid for maximum of regular and extra labor for the coming year. The manure has been charged to the fields at 50 cents per load, and in mak- ing compost one cubic yard has been called a load, and charged accordingly. Tlie plaster bought cost $7 50 per ton, and was so^m at the rate of about 40 lbs per acre. The i)lan of crops for the coming j^ear is : No. 1. Soiling crops. No. 2. Oats, or Corn, or both. No. 3. Oats, followed by Wheat. No. 4. Soiling Corn, Eye, and Pasture. No. 5. Meadow. No. 6. Com. No. 7. Wooded Pasture. No. 8. Meadow. No. 9. Wheat (to be harvested in 187G). No. 10. Eoots and Potatoes. No. 11. Corn. No. 12. Pasture (includes 14). No. 13. Pasture. The department is in good working order at the close of this year, and starts out with a good prestige for the next. All of which is respectfully submitted, A. B. GULLEY, Prof. Agriculture. SALARIES OF FACULTY AND OTIIEE OFFICERS OF THE COLLEGE. Theophilus C. Abbot, LL. D., President, Professor of Mental Philosophy and Logic, 13,000. Robert C. Kedzie, A. M., !M. D., Professor of Chemistry and Curator of the Laboratory, $3,000. George T. Fairchild, A. M., Professor of English Literature and Librarian, ^2,000. Albert J. Cook, M. S., Professor of Zoology and Entomology, and Curator of the General Museum, $2,000. William J. Beal, A. M., B. S., .Professor of Botany and Horticulture, and Curator of the Botanical Museum, 12,000. Robert G. Baird, Secretary, $1,250. Alfred B. Gulley, Professor of Practical Agriculture, $2,000. Robert F. Kedzie, M. S., Assistant in Chemistry, $G00. Rolla C. Carpenter, B. S., C. E., Instructor in Mathematics and Ci\'il Engin- eering, $1,000. Charles W. Garfield, M. S., Foreman of the Gardens, $G0O. Charles L. Ingersoll, B. S., Foreman of the Farm, $G00. George W. White, Assistant Foreman of the Farm, $500. James Cassidy, Gardener, $G0O. James M. Short, Steward, $700. FARMERS" INSTITUTES In the prepafiltion of this report of the Institutes I have endeavored to carrr out as fully as possible the general plan presented in the following resolution adopted by the Faculty : '■^ Eesolvecl, That the printed report of the Farmers' Institutes for 1876 shall contain the following, anfl in the following order: "1st. A general history of the enterprise, up to the meeting of the Institutes, including the aetion of tlie Faculty and of tlie Board of Agriculture, and the names of all the places that applied for an Institute. "2d. A history of each Institute, including the order of exercises, the address of welcome, the papers of the members of the Faculty that were read but once, the ]">apers otlier than by members of the Facidty, and the discussions on the same, motions and resolutions at the close of the meeting. "3d. The papers by members of the Faculty that were read at more than one Insti- tute. Following each paper shall be given the discussions on that paper, in the chronological order of the Institutes, as far as possible." Personally, I feel under great obligations to Mr. J. W. King of the Lansing Repulilican, for the valual)lo assistance rendered while this report has boon pass- ing through the press. For his excellent report of the discussions of the Insti- ttitos which he attended, he lias the sincere thanks of every member of the Facultv. R. G. BAIRD, * Secretary. GENERAL I1I8T0RY, INCLUDING THE ACTION OF THE COLLEGE FACULTY AND THE STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE RELATING TO THE INSTITUTES. A new and important feature of the work of the Agricultural College during the year 1875 has been the inauguration and carrying forward of a scheme for the holding of Farmers' Institutes in ditferont portions of tlie State. As the farming comumnity has taken a very lively interest in those Institutes, and many inquiries arc ]:)eing made regarding them, we propose here to state the objects which the State Board of Agriculture and the Faculty of the College liad mainly in view in inaugaratuig those meetings, and also the maimer in which those held during the month of January, 18 T6, were conducted. In order that the benefits of those Institutes may not be confined to the localities wliere they were ]ield, but extended to agriculturists generally, there is given in this FARMEES' INSTITUTES. 73 report the lectures, essays, and addresses delivered at tlie Institutes, aud also the discussions by \diicli a })ortion of the time was most agreeably and profit- ably occupied. The expediency of holding Farmers' Institutes in different portions of the State had frequently boon a subject of discussion by the members of the College Faculty. At a meeting of that ])ody, held May Tth, 18 To, the following resolu- tions were presented by Prof. K. C. Kedzie, and unanimously adopted : '■•Eesoh'ed, That a connnittee of three he appointed by the President to draw up a scheme for a series of Fanners' Institutes to be lield in different parts of the State duriug the next winter; including in the exercises of sucli Institutes lectures aud essays by members of tlie Faculty; that the several members of the State Board of Agriculture aud leading farmers residing in the vicinity of tlie place of holding such Institutes, be respectfully and earncstly'requested to participate in the exercises by lectures, essays, aud discussions." '■'■Besohed, That said committee be instructed to confer with the State Board of Agriculture, at its next meeting, to make all necessary arrangements for inaugurating and carrying out such series of Farmers' Institutes." President Abbot ajipointed as such committee. Professors E. C. Kedzie, W. J. Beal, and Mr. li. C. Carpenter. At the next meeting of the fState Board of Agriculture, which was held com- mencing June 1st, the above committee presented the following memorial: To the Hon. Board of ArjricnUiire : At a meeting of the Faculty of this College, held May r)th. it was inianimously resolved that a'connuittee l)e appointed by the President to draw up a scheme for a .series of Farmers' Institutes to l»e held under the supervision and direction of the State Board of Agricultiu-e, in difterent parts of the State during the coming winter; tliat the exercises of such InstitiUes shall consist of lectures, essays, and discussions -of previously selected topics; that the several meml)ers of the Board, aud leading- farmers residing in the vicinity, be invited to take part in all such meetings, and the members of tlieVFacuIty will take such part as the Board nniy think best. It was also resolved that the committee confer with the Board at its next meeting, and arrange for such a series of Institutes. In accordance with these resolutions, the undersigned were api)ointed a committee to place the matter before the Board of Agriculture, and to ask you to inaugurate .and carry forward such a series of Farmers' institutes during the coming winter. Whatever may be the cause, we think the fact is sufficiently evident that there is a want of sympathy between the farmers and the Agricultural College. By reason of this want'of sympathy the farmers are deprived of much of the .i>-ood which they may secure from tlie Agricultural College, and which they have a right to demand; and the College is crippled in its work for the same reason. We believe that this want of sympathy and lack of interest are because the farmers, as a class, know but little of the real working of the College, and that if the Board and Faculty could be brought into more intimate association with farmers in all parts of the State, these evils might be removed. If the College is not doing such work as ought to command the confidence of intelligent farmers in all parts of our State, then our system should be altered so as to meet the just demands of the farmers; if we are doing such work, we may still fail of our duty if we .fail to make this fact known. There is something wrong when the (,'ollege, after 16 years of continuous work, is still denounced and decried in some of the most flourishing agricultural sections of our State. We therefore ;isk the Board of Agriculture, who are the agents of the people to manage aiul control the College for the good of the whole State, to arrange for hold- ing six Farmers' Institutes during the month of Jauuary, 187(5. These meetings should be understood to be the firstof a series of meetings Avhicli will be held winter after winter, if tlie interest of the agricultural public shall warrant. These first meetings should be held in the older-settled portions of the State. We would sug- gest that one be held in each of the following counties: Macomb, Lenawee, Branch. St. Joseph, Cass, Van Buren. We ask the Board of Agriculture to take upon themselves the responsibility of the whole thing; to invite speakers, essayists, and persons to lead off" in discussion on topics selected and announced in advance; to preside at such meetings or to select presiding officers, and to make all arrangements necessary to make these Institutes a 10 74: STATE BOARlJ OF AGEICULTUEE. success. We would also respectfully suggest that each Institute begin with an eve- ning meeting, with an address and topic for discussion, and tliat the next day be entirely given up to the work of the Institute, to close with a meeting on the even- ing of the second day. Two such Institutes could l>e held in each week, and the whole concluded in three weeks, beginning with January 10. The members of the Faculty will take such part in the meetings as the Board may deem advisable, but we would suggest that not n)ore than two members of the Faculty take part in any one meeting. One essential element of success will be to secure the active cooperation, by addresses, essays, and discussions, of leading farmers in the region in which the Institute is held. The Institutes will be feeble in interest and Impotent for good without such active assistance of representative farmers. The length of time assigned for an Institute may seem short, but brief, spicy, and wide-awake meetings will more naturally be secured, and if the time is too short as shown by experience, it may be extended hereafter. Better too short than too long. We also suggest that a competent reporter be employed to prepare an extended report of these meetings for insertion in the Annual Keport. Invitations for such meetings should be secured through Farmers' Clubs, Granges, etc. If these Institutes are held because the people ask fur them, the influence will be much better. The local expense of such Institutes shoiild be borne by the people of tlie vicinity; e, g., for hall. Are, lights, etc. Such is a brief outline of the subject. There may be many crude and impracticable Ideas embraced in our scheme, but we want the College and the farmers to come nearer to each other, to be a mutual benefit to each other, and to see the College take such a position in agriculture and associated arts tliat it shall be the pride and boast of the farmers of every section of our State. We very well know that in requesting the Board to inaugurate such a series of meetings, and to take the control and guidance of the same, we are asking you to assume an onerous responsibilitj'. But the State authorities in placing you as the responsible head of the Agricultural College, have thereby placed you as the leaders of the agricidtural educational interests of the State. By j'our position you must take the lead in all eflbrts which aim to develop an intelligent interest in Avhatever shall benefit this overshadowing industry. Compared with our agriculture, all other productive industries in our State must speedily take a secondary position. Our lum- bering will soon cease, for the axe and the saw will soon have done their work. Min- ing itself must take a subordinate position in our State, but our agriculture will go on increasing in extent, variety, and absolute value to the end of time. The farmers of our State have, tlierefore, a right to demand for themselves and for their calling all that is most helpful and stimulating, to aid this great industry; and the Agricultural College, and all connected Avith it, will fail of their duty if they are not foremost in every movement which shall tend to the improvement of agriculture. Agricultural College, June 1st, 1875. Respectfully subm i t te d. R. C. KEDZIE, W. J. BEAE, R. C. CARPEXTER, Committee. The Board appointed a committee, consisting of Hon. J. Webster Childs, Hon. A. S. Dyckmau, and Hon. Milton J. Gard, to make all necessary arrange- ments for the successful carrying out of the suggestions contained in tlie report read by Prof. Kedzie. . At the next meeting of the State Board, which was held commencing August 24:th, a petition was presented from the members of the Armada (Macomb Co.) Agricultural Society, and one from the Eocliester (Oakland Co.) Grange, requesting the holding of an Institute at each of these places. These reciuests were granted, and a resolution was passed inviting the College Faculty to furnish a list of the subjects on which they would speak at the various Institutes to be held during the winter, and requested Prof. Kedzie to write an article set- ting forth a general plan for the Institutes, and the objects sougiit to bo secured by them, and to have the article published in several of the leading papers of the State. FAEMERS' INSTITUTES. 71 The following article was published in the Lansing Kepublican Sept. 21, 1875, and in other papers about the same time : FAEMEKS' INSTITUTES FOR 1S7G. At a meeting of the State Board of Agriculture held last June, the Board deter- mined to hohl a series of Farmers' Institutes during the month of January, 187G. They resolved to hold six Institutes. Tliese Institutes are the first of a series to he held winter after winter if the interest of the agricultural public shall warrant. It is the desire of the Board to hold these Institutes iu diflereut parts of the State, to subserve the best interests of those engaged iji agriculture and kindred pm-suits. LENGTH OP THE MEETING. It is the design that the Institute shall not be long, or wear out the patience and endurance of the community. Short, spicy, wide-awake meetings are what is desired. The Institute will open with an evening meeting, and the whole of the next day and evening will be devoted to the work. It will thus embrace two evenings and one day. If it is found that the time is too short, a change may be made hereafter; but it is not designed to make it a protracted meeting in any sense. AVHEN TO BE HELD. The Institutes will begin after the fall and early winter work is out of the way, and the season of the holidays fully past. They will begin with the week commencing Jan- uary 10, and two Institutes will be held each week till all are closed. WHERE THEY WaLL BE HELD. This is for the farmers to settle for themselves. ApiDlication has been made for one Institute by the Armada Farmers' Club, and another by the Detroit and Bay City District Council of Patrons of Husbandry. These invitations have been accepted, and the first Institute will be held at Armada and the second at Rochester. Four more Institutes are yet to be located. These will be located by the committee of the Board having this matter in charge, on application by xVgricultural Societies, Farmers' Clubs, Granges, and other organizations designed to advance the cause of agriculture. Early application should be made to secure an Institute. TO "WHOM TO APPLY . The committee having in charge these Institutes consists of the following members of the Board: Hon. -T.^Webster^Childs of Ypsilanti, Chairman; Hon. A. S. Dyckmau of South Haven; and Hon. Milton J. Gard of Cassopolis. Application may be made to any member of the committee. The details of each Institute will be arranged by some member of the committee. A local committee should be appointed at each place where an Institute is to be held, to assist the committee of the Board in per- fecting the details of the meeting. EXPENSES. The conununity where the Institute is held will be expected to furnish the hall, and provide for warming and lighting the same. All other expenses will be borne by the Board of Agriculture. "WHO WILL TAKE PAPvT IN THE MEETINGS. « It is expected and earnestly desired that leading farmers in the vicinity of the Institute will give lectures, read essays, and take part in the discussions. It is expected that the discussions will be of 'especial interest, in which farmers will give their views and relate their experience upon the topics proposed for discussion. As the topics for discussion will be selected by the local committee where the Institute is held, the public will thereby be assured that such topics for discussion will be pre- sented as will be of especial iiiterest to that community. The members of the Board will also take part in the proceedings, and the members of the College Faculty will take part if so desired. WHO ARE INVITED. Every one who tills the soil or is interested iu agriculture. Farmers and their wives and families are especially invited; also all who honor or would benefit the noblest of all industries. 7G STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. ORDER OF BUSINESS. The order of busiuess will be determined by each Institute for itself. The follow- ing pi-ogramme is suggested if no better one is found: The Institute to begin with an evening meeting, with a lecture upon some previously announced subject, to bo fol- lowed by a discussion on the subject of the lecture, or on some previously selected topic. The morning and afternoon will be given up to essays, lectures, and discussions on selected subjects, giving especial ijrominence to the relation of experience of farm- ers upon the subject under discussion. The Institute to close with an evening meet- ing with an essay or lecture, and discussion. The meeting will ))e so short that every farmer and his wife can afford to attend the whole meeting. . OBJECTS. 1. It is not tlic design to secure mere rhetorical efforts, but to meet and talk over, in a common-sense way, matters of vital interest to the farmer. 2. One object to be secured is to bring the farmers, the Board, and the Faculty of the Agricultural College in closer relations to each other, in hope of mutual benefit, that the teacher maj' have the benefit of the broad and extensive experience of the farmer, and that the farmer n\ay pei'haps derive hints from the teacher, to be put in practice on the farm. 3. One very important object to 1>e secured is to gather up and preserve in perma- nent form tlie results of agricultural experience and the views of leading farmers in difierent parts of the State. For this purpose a short-hand reporter will attend the Institute to make a complete report of all addresses, essaj's, and discussions, to be printed in the annual report of the State Board of Agriculture. 4. Finally, to give a broader scope to the instruction at the Agricultural College, and to make it more fully than ever l>efore the exponent of the most progressive and iidvanced agriculture of our State. Farmers of Miclugan! AVill you '-meet the Board half-way,'' in this eff'ort for mutual benefit ? E. C. KEDZIE. Agricultural College, Sept. 13, 187"). Both tlic Stiitc Board of Agriculture aud the College Faculty wore genorallj of the opinion that tliey should not nuxko arrangements for more than six Institutes during the winter, and when, at tlie Novend^er meeting of the State I5oard, it v.as found that Hon. J. "Webster Childs, Chairnnin of the Committoc on Fanners' Institutes, had received between thirty and forty applications for Institutes to be held at as manj^ different places, it was likely to be a difficult matter to decide where they should be held. It was, however, agreed that the least objectionable way to settle the matter would l)e according to priority of application, holding tlie Institutes at the places where they had lirst applied for them, having in view a proper geographical distribution in the State, giving two Institutes to the eastern, two to the western, and two to the soutliern part of the State, provided that two could be held nearly on the same line of travel, there- by lessening the amount of traveling expenses. In accordance with this plan, lion. J. Webster Childs, Chairman of Committee, reported the following arrangement for holding the Institutes, which was unanimously adopted: At Armada, Macomb county, Jan. 11 aud 12, to be attended bv the following mem- bers of the college faculty: Pres. T. C. Abbot, Profs. W. J. Bealand A. B. Gulley, and Mr. C. 1j. Ingersoll, foreman of the farm. At Rochester, Oakland count}', January 13 and 14, attended by the same represent- atives of the college as that at Armada." At Allegan, Jan." 11 and 12, attended by Profs. Geo. T. Fairchild, R. C. Kedzie. A. J. Cook, and Mr. R. C. C^arpenter. At Decatur, Van Buren county, Jan. 13 and 14, attended by the same representatives of the college as are assigned to Allegan. At Adriaji (time not fixed), attended by Profs. Geo. T. Fairchild, R. C. Kedzie, A. J. Cook, and Mr. Garfield. At Coldwater (time not fixed), attended by Pres. T. C. Abbot, Profs. "VV. J. Beal, A. B. Gulley, and the Secretary, R. G. Baird. FAKMEKS' INSTITUTES. 77 The time of the two last named Institutes was left indefinite, tliat they might bo so arranc'ed as not to interfere with tlie annual meeting of the State Affricul- tural Society. It was soon after arranged to hold the institute at Adrian on the 18th and 10th, and that at Coldwater on tlie 20th and 21st of January. Immediately after the meeting of the Board the above arrangement was pub- lished in the Detroit daily papers and in tho Lansing Republican, accompanied with the f olloAving statement : The representatives of the State Agricultural College attending these Institutes will be prepared to lecture on any of the following subjects, and will select from these topics as far as possible to suit tlic Avishes of parties in the localities where the lustitiites are to bo held : Pres, T. C. Abbot : 1, '• Industrial Education f 2, " Tbe Agricultural College." Prof. A. J. Cook: 1, " The Apiary, — its pleasures, protits, and management, — should it supplement the labors of the farm?" 2, "The three worst insects of the farm, — how can we conquer them?" 3, "Friiit or insects, which?" Prof. W. J. Beal: 1, "Grasses and Forage Plants;" 2, ''The Farmers Gardeu;" 3, "Landscape Gardening for the Farmer." Prof. A. B. Gulley : " Improved IIuKbandrv." Prof. R. C. Kedzie: 1. "Plaster;" 2, "Muck;" 3, "Poisons in Agriculture;" 4, "A talk on lightning-rods." Prof. Geo. T. Fairchild: 1, "Division of Labor on the Farm;" 2, "Education, — who needs it and who can aftbrd it." Secretary P. G. Baird: "The Prospective Benefits of the Centennial Exhibition." Mr. C. L. Ingersoll: 1, "Farm Drainage;" 2 "What stock shall we keep?" Mr. C. W. Garfield : 1, " Beautifying our Homes ;" 2, " The Farmer as a Student." The appointments made by tlie State Board with regard to professors and other representatives of the college to atteud the several institutes was carried out except in the following instances : Professors W. J. Beal and A. B. Gulley were unable, on account of sickness, to fulfill any appointments made for them, and Mr. 0. VI. (Jarfield did not attend the institute at Adrian, having been sum- moned three davs before to Grand Rapids, to the death-bed of his father, Hon. S. M. Garfield. . The Secretary, R. G. Baird, and Mr. C. W. Garfield attended the institutes held at Armada and Rochester, in place of Professors W. J. Beal and A. B. Gulley. In addition to the appointments made for them, President Abbot attended the institute at Adrian, Prof. Kedzie the one at Coldwater, and Mr. Ingersoll both at Adrian and Coldwater. PLACES THAT APPLIED FOR AN INSTITUTE. The following is only a partial list, but is as nearly complete as can be fur- nished from present data : Hillsdale— F. M. Ilalloway, Sec. Plymouth— H. O. llauford, Canton. Allegan— E. C. Reid. Ypsilanti — Coldwater — C. G. Luce, Gilead. Lansing — R. E. Trowbridge. Howell— E. I. Merithon, Howell. Lambertville — J. J. Sumner. St. Johns— R. W. Maxam, H. Hammond, Ricliard Moore. Mason — A. M. Chapin, Eden. Charlotte— O. E. Chappell. Albion— A.M. Fitch. Portland— N. B. Rice. Chelsea — Geo. H. Mitchell. Greenville — L. C. Ijincoln. Decatur — Volinia Club and Grange. 78 STATE BOAED OF AGEICULTUKE. Adrian — A. H, Briggs. ' Armada — Chas. Andrews, etc. Cassopolis — C. C. Allison. Kochester — C. K. Carpenter. Constantine — Grange — Jas. Kicliurds, Levi T. Hull. Hudson — C. A. Jewell. RECORD OF EACH INSTITUTE. ALLEGxV:^. The Institute at Allegan was held, commencing on Tuesday evening, January 11th, It was attended throughout by a large and deeply interested audience, and the programme previously arranged was most siiccessfuUy carried out. The meetiug was called to order, and in the absence of Gen. B. D. Pritchard, President of the County Agricultural Society, Hon. Thomas Shepherd was cho- sen chairman for the evening. Rev. J. Sailor of Allegan delivered a short opening address, in which he spoke of the no])lencss and utility of agricultural pursuits, and the advantages to be derived by farmers from education. In closing, he welcomed the gentlemen from the State Agricultural College who had come to aid in the exercises of the Institute. We regret that before putting this report into the hands of the printer we have not been ])ut in possession of a copy of this address, that wo might have reported it in full. Prof. Geo. T. Fairchild, on being introduced to the audience, delivered his lecture entitled "Education: Who need it and who can afford it." This address, with others, is given in full, follo^ving the reports of the Institutes. Next on the programme was an essay by Mr. Clubb. Tliat gentleman being absent, the essay, by vote, was read by E. C. Reid of Allegan. FRUIT-GROWIXG IN MICHIGAN. Delivered January 11th, 1S76, before the Agricultural Institute held tinder Direction of the State Board of Agriculture at Allegan, Michigan, by Henry S, Clubb. Fruit-growing in Michigan is a subject richly deserving the attention of Michigan farmers, and especially of those whose farms are located in those counties bordering the great lakes, of which Allegan is one of the most fortun- ate, in soil and situation. The sn])ject is most naturally divided into three principal branches, which, like the limbs of a fruitful tree, again divide into numerous lesser limbs : First — Its History. Second — Its Present Status. Third — Its Prospects. I. ITS HISTORY. Fruit-growing commenced in the territory now known as the State of Mich- igan at a very early period. Long before any effort was made by man, the Cre- ator caused fruits of various kinds to spring up from the soil in great profusion. FARMEES' INSTITUTES. 79 The precise period when this Avouderfully productive and extensive fruit garden was first planted, human history fails to record, and Indian tradition gives us no clue to the mystery. 8oon after the subsidence of the waters which at one time covered this territory, the spontaneous fruits of the earth probably made their appearance, and a brief consideration of what are called the ''wild fruits of Michigan"' will be in order here. The Wild Fruits of Michifjan. The principal wild fruits of our favored State are as follows : Ajjjjies — Crab-apples, Thorn-apples. Berries — Cranberries, Billberries, Blackberries, Blueberries, Dewberries, Gooseberries, Mulberries, lvaitis most commonly called. Both of these fm.its are highly esteemed, and com- mand a price equal to tliat of our most jiopular garden or orchard fruits. And yet thousands of acres annually olfer their load of wealth in jMichigan, and the people are too busy, complaining of hard times, to stretch forth their hands to gather and market these valuable and extensive crops. The raspberry, which grows wild all over the State, so far as explored, is particularly productive in the northwest. The Upper Peninsula, u-ually I'egarded as too cold for fruit growing, is in fact a vast raspberry garden, and the crop is of immense value to the miners and others who would otherwise depend on imported fruits. The raspberiy pro- duced there so abundantly differs little, if any, from the Philadelpliia raspberry of our catalogues, and appears to be about as productive and large Avhen favor- ably located. The deep snow which usually covers the raspberry cane in tlio Upper Peninsula, secures it from destruction during the severest cold, and the remarkable health of the people of this region may, in a great measure, be attributed to the abundance of this wholesome fruit. The BlacMcrri/. — I think I am doing no injustice to the Blackberry in placing it next to the raspberry as a natural production of Michigan. It is already largely marketed in the Lower Peninsula, and will always command a good price, as it contains medicinal as well as dietetic properties which render it invaluable. Its importance is increased from the fact that it springs up all over that exten- sive region of country where hmibermen have taken away the pine, and wdierc the agriculturist has not yet taken possession. It seems to be impossible, with the utmost ingenuity and persistency, for man to make an unproductive wilder- ness of Michigan ; for no sooner has the pine been stripped from our forest, and the fires which usually follow swept over the land, than up springs the bramble, either blackberry or raspberry or l)oth, and in a very few years what has been left l)y the woodsman and abandoned as worthless, becomes a natural fruit gar- den, loaded with a crop which, if gathered and marketed, would realize a greater profit than lumber, with far less labor and outlay of capital. The careful farm- ers that live adjacent to our lake harbors, and some of the inhabitants of our cities and villages, avail themselves of the blackberry harvest ; but there is good reason to believe that, although several tliovisand dollars' worth are annually harvested and marketed, the crop gathered bears a very small proportion to the crop produced. The Wintcrgrcen. — Of late years that beautiful, aromatic, red berry, so com- mon in Michigan, known as the Wintergreen, has gradually found its way to market. It is Ijelieved to be valuable for its medicinal as well as its dietetic qualities, and its more general use would bo productive of public health. It is eagerly sought for by children, and is a favorite fruit with all who are acquainted \fith its virtues. The peculiarity of the wintergreen is its preservation during the entire Arinter season, when covered with snow, and its freshness in early spring, before any fruit or A'egetable has been produced. A recent writer has said in regard to the wintero^reen : "For Avhile it is so beautiful With scarlet berries bright, It's coA'ered up beneath the snow All Avinter out of sight; And in the spring, this little thing Just peeps above the ground, And children run and gather it And find it sweet and sound. FAEMEES' INSTITUTES. 81 Thus every season has its fruits, From early spring till fall, And even winter can't be said To have no fruit at all : For if Ave only take the pains To dive beneath the snow, We find, bright red and crisp and bright. The wintergreeu below. The }Yild Grape. — Speaking of tlie Frencli voyagers and their explorations of the river Eaisin, Hon. Edwin Willets of Monroe says: ''At intervals the wild, nnbroken forest came to the water's edge, and cast the shade of giant trees into the river ; and everywhere, in the vrildwood and in the glade, on the river's edge, and as far away under the over-arching trees as the eye could see was a wealth of grape-vines. Even-where hung clusters of rich pui-j^le fruit ; every- where, Vvith a vrild luxuriance that far surpassed the stories their fathers had told of the vineyards of sunny France. Yfithiu the present century, from a point near the foot of the street on which this building stands (hi Monroe) to where the mill-dam has been placed, a man, now living, walked and climbed the v»'hole distance, over 80 rods, on grape-vines, climbing from tree to tree without touch- ing the ground. Xo wonder these warm-hearted, enthusiastic voyageurs, as they paddled along up the river, cried out, ' Le raisin ! Le raisin ! ' (the grape ! the grape !) and that they then named the beautiful river as they did, "La Riviere au Eaisin."' The wild grapes, although now superseded by cultivated varieties, as a general rule, are still highly prized, especially for v.'iue ; and in the season of 1875 they were the only varieties in the Northwest that sufficiently matured for that purpose. The Wild JVufs. — Of the nuts of Michigan all are good, but on account of its extensive growth the Beechnut, perhaps the least prized, is, I think, on the whole, the most valuable to the State. The year 1875, so disastrous for culti- vated fruits, was remarkable for the quantity and superior quahty of its beech- nuts. Farmers usually allow the hogs to harA'est this crop, and even for hog- feed it is a profitable crop. In replanting trees for shade, wind-break, or ornament, if our valuable nut- producing trees were selected, we should not have to regret the diminution in the production of nuts, caused by the destruction of our forests for timber. Butternut, walnut, and chestnut are as good for shade and ornament as maple, or nearly so ; and the production of nuts, and their greater value for timber, render them more desirable. The Berry Crop. — The natural production of berries in Michigan is, how- ever, the principal feature of the subject of interest to farmers, as indicating, with the utmost certainty, what may be relied upon~ as the fruit crop of Mich- igan. For thousands of years, j)robably, this ten-itory has produced annually its crop of berries, and in all that long period no reverse of season, no severe winter or dry summer, has exterminated the cranberry, the huckleberry, the raspberry, or the blackberry, establishing the fact beyond a question that our soil and climate are peculiarly adapted to the production of this class of fruits. And, amid all the reverses of fruit-growing incident to the introduction of exotics, it will be found that the fruit-grower v/ho has follovred the teachings of nature, and planted most largely of the berries, has succeeded best in establish- ing fruit-growing on a permanent and reliable basis. Michigan is naturally a beri-y-producing State^ and Avhile every 'effort to introduce exotic varieties may 11 82 STATE BOAED OF AGKICULTUKE, be laudable, in view of the general interest, farmers should rely mainly on crops which the experience of the past proves to be as sure as ordinary farm crops. Introduction of Exotic Fruits. Tlie first planting of fruit-trees by man, of which we have any record, appears to have occurred about the year 1705, as in 1805 there still stood and flourished a pear-tree near the Detroit river which was then said to be 100 j'ears old. From this tree Francis Kavarre transplanted two sprouts, which grew to be productive trees. The belief is that the pear was originally imported from France, and it is reported that three pear-seeds originated the celebrated old pear-trees along the banks of the Detroit river, and that these seeds were brought over by a French immigrant in his vest pocket. But, however the introduction of foreign fruits commenced, it is most probable that the early French traders and missionaries imported them and planted them at their various trading-jDosts and missionary stations aloug tlie Detroit river, at Monroe, at Old Mission, New Mission, and other points in the Grand Traverse region, and at Mackinaw. Not only pears, but apjjles still flourish at these points, and, although but little cultivated, these trees are still productive ; and when taken in hand by skillful cultivators, as is usually the case, their youth has been renewed and they have become profitable trees. Many of these trees were planted during the last cen- tury. Both the apple and pear-trees are healthy, and still bear from thirty to fifty bushels in a season. They appear to be as hardy as the forest trees, and have become thoroughly acclimated. Early Orchard Planting. The first extensive orchard was probably that planted by Governor Wm. Woodbridge, consisting of two thousand apple and pear-trees. It was on his farm west of Detroit, and now absorbed by that rapidly growing city. Those trees were planted in 1835, so that orchard planting in Michigan may be said already to have attained to the dignity of half a century, although the largest portion of it has been done within the past 20 or 25 years. Orchard planting, as a part of the agriculture of Michigan, has been more or less pursued ever since the time of Governor Woodbridge. Almost every farmer who could pay for or get trusted with fruit-trees, has planted an orchard ; and in many cases when the time has come around to pay off the last installment of tlie farm mortgage, the sale of fruit from the orchard has been the source from whence the money was obtained. While this has been the case generally throughout the State, that farmers have made fruit-growing simply an incidental feature of their agricultural operations, and usually subordinate to their general farming, there are counties in the State that, owing to their peculiar fitness for the busi- ness, nave made fruit-growing a specialt}-, and in some a leading feature. AjjjjUs a Specialty. The production of apples in Michigan has been a special feature in the coun- ties of Oakland, Lenawee, Jackson, Hillsdale, Branch, Calhoun, Macomb, Livmgston, Washtenaw, Wayne, Van Buren, Shiav;assee, ^donroe, Lapeer, Kent, Ionia, Ingham, Genesee, Eaton, Berrien, Kalamazoo, and Allegan, as the orchards in those counties, many of which were planted thirty, and some forty years ago, are now in good bearing condition. There are other counties rapidly coming into prominence as apple-growing counties, among the most promising of which is probably the county of Grand Traverse, where apples have FAEMEKS' INSTITUTES. 83 been extensively planted -within the pa?t ten years, and the quality of the apples produced near Traverse Bay is unsurpassed. Peaclies a Specialty. Peach-growing, as a specialty, commenced in Berrien county in 1835, and the first exportation of peaches took place in 18-iO, from the harbor of St. Joseph, in that county. The enormous prices obtained by Capt. Boughton, the pioneer in this business, for Michigan peaches in Chicago, sometimes as high as 845 a barrel, stimulated peach-growing in the St. Joseph region, and in ten years Capt. Boughton' s ship- ments alone amounted to 10,000 baskets. Although Berrien county has kept the lead in the production of peaches, the counties of Van Buren, Allegan, Otta- wa, Kalamazoo, Kent, Muskegon, and Oceana have planted largely of peaches, and have competed with Berrien for the honor and profit of peach-growing. In small fruits, grapes, strawberries, raspberries, and in all other fruits except apples, Berrien county also takes the lead of all other counties, and may be said to have made fruit-growing the leading interest of the county. II. ITS PKESENT STATUS. Since the disastrous winter of 1875, which affected the fruit trees not merely of Michigan but of all the jSTorthwestern States, fruit-growing as practiced by horticulturists has received a shock that it will require several seasons to recover from. Previous to that disastrous period, in the winter of 1873, it had also sus- tained severe drawbacks in various parts of the State ; but the cold of one year ago affected even the lake-shore region, owing to the generally accredited fact that Lake Michigan w'as actually covered with ice, and the usual protection afforded by open water was for a time withdrawn, and the lake shore was no better than fifty miles inland, so far as lake protection was concerned. This unusual, and, as we believe, unprecedented occurrence, causing the destruction of a large proportion of peach trees, and of not a few of other fruit trees, nat- urally discouraged and greatly inconvenienced fruit-growers, especially those whose almost sole dependence was on the peach, the pear, and similar exotic fruits. But those fruit-growers who have made small fruits their specialty, or who have had the precaution of adopting mixed husbandry in regard to fruit, have only regarded the calamity as incidental and temporarj', and move along in the even tenor of their way, almost undisturbed. TliQ Census Eefurns. The census of 18 74, taken by State authority, showed that there were 237,- 098 acres of land devoted to orchards; 1,029.G4 acres to vineyards; 947.52 to raspberiy canes ; 1,648.32 to strawberry plants; 387.37 to currants and goose- berries, and 8,421 to melons and garden vegetables, making the total number of acres devoted to horticulture 249,532.85. And this, the w^ork of less than 50 years, with a population of, for most of that period, less than one million, on a territory capable of sustaining in comfort at least twenty millions. The pro- ceeds or annual receipts for the produce of this land in 1872, is given as $3,537,- 519; and in 1873, the year of disaster next preceding the last, it was not less than 3,386,866. It is not expected that these figures are absolutely correct, as those who have ever tried to collect statistics of this character well know it is impossible to more than approximate the amount. But these figures are suffi- ciently accurate to show that previous to 1875 the fruit interest, notwithstand- 84 STATE BOAKD OF AGEICULTUKE. ing the disaster of 1873, had attained very respectable proportions, and fully justified the State in making an effort to obtain returns on the subject. The object of taking the returns for two years, which does not seem to be understood by the compiler of the census, who complains of the extra labor it occasioned and the difficulty of obtaining accurate returns for 1873, was to show tlie effect of the severe winter of 1873 on the succeeding croj^. At the time the census law was amended so as to include fruit returns, the legislature had just experienced at Lansing one of those severe frosts which, to persons coming out of the heated atmosphere of the State capitol, appeared to take away the breath. Thirty degrees below zero had several times been reached, and the horticultural mem- bers of the legislature well knew that the crop of peaches and of some other choice fruits Avould not be a fair average the coming season ; so, in order to make the returns of fruit of any value, the crop for 1872 was included. That crop was, perhaps, as nearly an average one as could then be obtained, and although made up, in a great measure, from the imjoerfect memory of farmers, offer us some basis of comparison. TaMe shoiving the Effect of the Cold Viinter of 1873 on the Fruit Crop. FKUIT. Apples Peaches Pears Plums Cherries Grapes Strawberries _ Currants and Goose berries _ _ Vegetables Value 1872. 7,243,146 bu. 318,554 " 33,932 " G,301 " G0,958 " 23,235 cwt. 50,420 bu. 36,484 " 685,904 " $3,537,519 00 1873. 5,928,275 bu. 22,069 '' 40,857 '• 3,667 " 66,746 " 29,601 cwt. 48,922 bu. 40,562 '• 930,686 '• $3,386,866 00 Difference. 1,319,971 bushels less. 296,485 " " 6,925 '• more. 2,634 " less. 5,788 " more. 6,366 cwt. more. 1,498 bushels less. 4,078 more 244,782 u ^'?l 50,653 less. From this table it will be seen that the principal loss occasioned by the severe winter of 1873 Avas with the apples and peache«, while pears, cherries, grapes, currants, and gooseberries showed a positive increase that year over the crop of the preceding year, and so did melons and garden vegetables. Strawberries, however, suffered a decrease from winter-killing of the plants. The loss on apples and peaches was very great, and so great on peaches as to amount to a failure, except in Berrien, Allegan, and Van Buren counties. Van Bureu was that year the banner peach county, having produced 9,072 bushels, against 6,230 in Allegan, and 2,357 in Berrien. This would seem to justifv, in a meas- ure, the claims of our South Haven friends as to their favored location. This table also shows the important fact that a winter, however severe, does not necessarily affect grapes, currants, and gooseberries. Had raspberries been specified, it is probable it would have shown them also but little affected. The fact that after the still more severe winter of 1875 the grape croji failed for the first time in Michigan, does not change this view, because it is well known that much of that failure wa3 owing to the unusually short summer rather than to the severity of the winter. The grapes were grown, but failed to mature. Tliis table also shows that notwithstanding the great loss on aj)ple3 and the still greater failure of peaches, the loss was nearly made up by an increase in FAKMEES' INSTITUTES. 85 other crops, showiug, what should always he insisted upou with those who depend on fruit-growing for a living, the importance of mixed husbandry. Effects of the Season of 1875. The destruction of peach and even of apple trees by the extraordinary season of 1875 will undoubtedly lead to the adoption of mixed husbandry in fruit-grow- ing, and this can be done by the substitution of small fruits for the trees destroyed, so that in a very few years the annual product will reach its former and even greater proportions. "While peach-growing in the lake-shore counties will still be, as it is being, ardently pursued by intelligent cultivators who will receive higher prices in con- sequence of diminished jn'oduction, the fruit-growing interest is rapidly gaining, from the experience of varied seasons, that solid basis which will make it one of the permanent and profitable interests of the State. III. ITS PKOSPECTS. This leads me to the third and last branch of my subject. The jn'ospects of frait-growing in Michigan, although not equal to what they were before our recent disasters, are nevertheless good. The intelligent fruit-grower will adhere to his profession with strong faith. The careless grower will become more care- ful or abandon the business, leaving it better for those who pursue it with dili- gence ; and on .the whole, I predict for fruit-growing in Michigan a brilliant and a profitable future. Economy of tlie Fruit Business. To make fruit-growing profitable, however, cheaper transportation to market must be secured. Every operation must be conducted with economy and pru- dence, and the business must assume the solid, substantial character at which the production and marketing of other farm crops have long since arrived. Why it should cost ten times more to transport fruit across the lake than it does other farm crops, must be explained by our transportation companies, or the fruit farmers will have to become their own common carriers, or, what would be still better, keep their produce for canning or drying, in preference to paying unreasonable rates and submitting to extortion. If the producer would hold his fruit for sale on his own farm, and the commission mercliants had to pay for transportation instead of the fruit-grower, transportation comj^anies would soon be compelled, by the united influence of the trading community of the large cities, to place fn;it on a par with other staple productions as to cost of trans- portation, and give the fruit interest a fair chance witli the other producing interests. This state of things arrived at, and it is reasonable to believe that fi-uit-gro^ving vrill rapidly assume its position as one of the staple productive interests of Michigan. After the reading of Mr. Clubb's essay was the following DISCUSSIOX. Wm. Cumming of Saugatuck. — Mr. Clubb, the author of the paper is not present, but I would like to know if the statistics in regard to the shipment of fruit were taken from the shipping books of the warehouses, or gathered from the farmers? I saw a statement in some of the Chicago papers that South Haven was not only credited v/ith her own shipments of peaclies, but those of Saugatuck also, for that year. 86 STATE BOAKD OF AGRICULTUKE. N. W. Lewis. — I tliiuk Mr. Clubb is mistaken in regard to the extreme cold weatlier of 1875 covering the hike with ice so that the hike exerted no influence upon the temperature. For instance, the 9th of February was the coldest morn- ing. February 16 was another veiy cold time, but not as cold as the other. Near the lake the thermometer marked two degrees above zero, wdiile at a dis- tance of sixteen miles away from the lake it stood at sunrise from eighteen to twenty degrees below. This shows that the lake shore did receive an influ- ence from the lake at that time, although it was two weeks after the extreme cold morning. A. S. Dyckman, South Haven. — I cannot state definitely as to how the figures Averc obtained in regard to tlie peacli crop of 1873, but I believe it was done imdcr State law, by the officers who took the census of the other crops. It cer- tainly was not taken from the shipments to Chicago or from any port in Mich- igan. In reference to the lake being frozen over during last winter, I am inclined to doubt tliat. I believe there was no time durins; the winter of 1875 that we did not receive some protection from the lake. In Allegan and Van Buren counties I had opportunities for carefully observing it more than any- where else. The extreme cold of Feb. 9 was unprecedented, and eA"en then there Avas something of a lake influence, from the fact that the thermometer on the lake shore marked from 14 to 20 deg. below zero, Avhile we know at Grand Eapids it Avent below 40 deg., at Kalamazoo 30 deg., and at Allegan 34 deg. wed:nesday foeexoox. On the meeting being called to order, it Avas found that Mr. Blair of Martin, one of the essayist?, Avas absent, and Prof. Kedzio was requested to occupy the time, wliich he did by giA'ing an address on "Lightning Ivods." Immediately after, and in the regular order of the programme, the Professor gave his lecture on "Muck." Both of these lectures, and discussions on the same, are given in full, folloAvins; this record of the Institutes. Next on the programme Avas Mr. Julius Tomlinson of Allegan, avIio, being called upon, read the folloAving essay, entitled SHALL FARMERS KEEP BEES? Should A^e be told to-da}^ that some article of value existed all around us, and that it could 1)e had freely for the gathering, there Avould be, I apprehend, some curiosity to knoAv of this article. And should we have the further information that plenty of laborers could be obtained to gather tliis article, and bring it to our very doors, and put it into the most beautiful and couA'enient forms for sale or iise, the curiosity Avould doubtless increase. And A\'ero Ave further told that those laborers worked without Avages, seven days in the week, and from daAvn of day till dark, there might be some excitement on the subject. In the dcA^elopment of \'egetable life, one of its most beautiful processes is the opening of lloAvers. In the liearfe of floAA'ers is distilled the nectar that we call lioncy, and it is this article of value just ahuded to. In the development of animal and insect life, Avhich exists all around us in Avonderful profusion, Ave have the insect that Ave term the Bee ; the instinct of which is to gather this honey and store it away for present and future iise. The bees are the hiborers of Avliich I haA^e spoken. FAEMERS' INSTITUTES. 87 And, now. what is honey ? It is not necessary to define the term in scientific language. It is suflicient to say that is a yery desirable sweet, gathered by bees from flowers. It is stored by tlieni in tubes of wax of purest white, and is not only beautiful to look ujion, pleasant to the taste, and a graceful addition to the i^leasnres of any repast. It is relished as an article of food by nearly every member of the human family, and has been held in the highest estimation from the earliest ages to the present time. Allusions to it are frequent in profane and sacred writings, and I will digress for a moment to allude to some of the latter. AVhen the patriarch Jacob desired favors of the ruler of Egj^^t, he said to his sons: ''Do this: carry dov\'n the man a present, a little balm, a little lioney, spices, and myrrh, and almonds." The psalmist Daml, in the nineteenth psalm, speaks of the "judgments of the Lord as sweeter than honey and the honey-comb;" and when Solomon would find a fitting simile for "pleasant words," he says that "they are as an honey-comb, sweet to the soul." It is said of John the Baptist that his food was "Locusts and wild honey;" and as it is recorded by the Evangelist Luke, the last article of food eaten by our Lord, and just before his ascension into heaven, was a piece of honey-comb. Honey exists all around us. It lies in tiny drops in the folds of nearly every flower. It is probably much more abundant than we are aAvare of, although many apiarians maintain a contrary opinion. But it is my belief that there are but few localities, at least in this State, where there is not honey enough to sup- ply a few swarms of bees on every farm. And what are bees? I need not define by the terms laid down in the books. Tliey are sufliciently well knoAA^n for all practical pui-jwses. Bees are the agents, and the only agents, by which honey can be obtained. Tlicy work with pro- digious energy and industry, and when honey is abundant, they Avill store it in almost incredible quantities, and when suitable room is proAided, they Avill store a handsome sui-plus for their owners. Besides this, they have the instinct to increase and form new colonies or swarms, and any kind of a box, or hollow log, or barrel, if it be clean, and free from offensive odors, Avill be accepted by them as a home. They are democratic in their tastes, and are perfectly indiffer- ent to the beauties of rural architecture. So that no farmer need hesitate about keej)ing bees on account of hi\'es. Any old box Avill do, though it is not the best by any means. Of the profits of bee-keeping in proper hands, with good hives, and in good locations, and with every condition just riglit, there can be no question. Now, giA'en honey in abundance, bees enough to gather it, and it would seem that bee-keeping must be for the farmer a very attractiA'e pursuit. Bees work early and late. They fly at Avill over hill, and valley, and plain. They gather only what would otherAnse go to waste. They enrich themselves and their oAA'ners, and impoverish no one. They are, moreover, very useful in the fertilization of floAA'ers. It AA^ould seem, therefore, that the farmer has e'veiy IncentiA'e to become a bee-keeper ; and so he would have AA^ere there no dark shade to this otherAAUse fair picture. I am here to answ^er the question, "Shall farmers keep bees?" I am, in one sense, on the witness stand, and it is incum- bent on me to present both sides. I cannot, in truth, plead entire ignorance in the matter of bee-keeping, although the more experience I liaA'e the more I am convinced that I stand only on the threshold of the science. The labors of agriculturists haA^e done more in the last qiiarter of a century to unfold the mys- teries of the bee hive than has been done before since the Avorld began ; yet it 88 STATE BOAED OF AGEICULTCRE. is my belief that as deep, if not deeper, mysterie.; rcmaiu to be unfolded. In what I have already said, I have presented bee-keeijing in its best aspects ; I would that I could stop here. But you would not be satisfied were I not to answer the question, AVhat are its drawbacks? T\'hy cannot every one realize to the fullest extent its i)leasurcs and profits ? What are the hindrances that the bee-keeper has got to meet, whether he will or not? 1st. Bees are armed and equipped as the law directs, and ready at all times for defensive and offensive war. It needs no detested conscrij^tion to drag them reluctantly to the fray, and when, for any cause, offended, they are more to be dreaded than the fabled Furies. To some, a bee-sting is a very serious matter, and a single sting has sometimes produced convulsions, and even death. And with the most exj^erienced bee-keepers, accidents will happen which makes it very difficult and dangerous to manage them. Unless bees are kept well out of the way there is always danger. A sweaty horse is very offensive to them, and there are many instances where valuable horses have been stung to death. The greatest care is always necessary in handling them, for if once offended they remember it for a long time. 2d. The bee moth. This is a winged insect, the lavx-x of which lives in the combs, and consumes the wax ; and when in sulficient numbers, destroys the colony. The moth is always present. There is no getting rid of it entirely. The bee-master must exercise unceasing watchfulness, or his bees vail bo ruined. It is like a besetting sin, ever ready to take advantage of any Aveakness on the part of the bees, or neglect of their owners. Although the skillful bee-master can keep them in check, still they must ever be considered a formidable enemy. 3d. Foul brood. This is a disease peculiar to bees, and, so far as I am aware, is incurable. Some may think that I need not refer to this disease, as it has never yet prevailed in this State so far as I know.* But it exists in other States, and with the present recklessness of bee-keepers in buying and 'selling queens and bees, it is liable to be introduced into any apiary ; there is no help for it, except by fire and brimstone. It is one of the risks that must be taken into the account in investing in bees. And 4th. All of the drawbacks that I have named dwindle into insijjnificance when compared with the overshadowing calamity now upon us, and which, for want of a better name, we call the dysentery. This has prevailed only a few years, yet it has spread all through the northern ■States, and I think I am safe in sadng that over fifty per cent of all our bees perish every winter and spring with this disease. Oftentimes large and prosper- ous apiaries are destroyed by it. As yet there is no remedy. So fatal is it that Mr. T. F. Bingham, one of our most skillful apiarians, has incurred the heavy expense of moving all his bees to the State of Tennessee, hoping thereby to escape. All of our bees that do not perish, no matter how wintered, come out ill the spring so weakened that it requires the utmost skill on the part of the bee- keeper to bring them up into working condition. Of the fifteen swarms that I had left last spring, over half failed to be prosperous for the whole season, and }delded no surplus honey. I think I do not err when I say that of those who had bees five years ago, seventy-five per cent novv* have none. If no sure remedy for this disease is found, we may as well give up in despair. There are other drawbacks, such as parasites, loss of queen, excessive swarm- ing, king-birds, toads, etc. ; but I will not dvrell further on the drawbacks to * Since reading the aboTC, Prof. Cook informs me that it lias prevailed in this State, doing heayy damage. FAKMEES' IXSTITUTES. 89 bee keeping. I have now prcseuted both sides of this interesting subject, and I leave for you, each for himself, to answer the question, "Shall farmers keep bees?" I will only say in conclusion, that among the requisites of a successful bee- keeper are undoubted courage, steady nerves, a fair share of mechanical skill, habits of close observation, orderly, and prompt to do the right thing at the right time, and in the right manner ; and above all an unflagging enthusiasm in the calling. If any one feels that he has these requisites, and has the heart and the purse to take the risks of the drawbacks that I have mentioned, I would say invest in bees. If not, he had better buy his honey at one dollar a pound. Mr. Wm. Gumming of Ganges was next called upon, who read the following essay on LONG-WOOLED SHEEP. One advantage that sheep possess over other varieties of stock is that the car- cass can be disposed of for mutton at any age, and costs no more to produce than other kinds of meat, while the fleece will usually pay all the cost of keep- ing ; and as both items, the wool and the carcass, are sources of profit, both items demand the attention of the sheejvbreeder. The sheep that will combine in the same animal both these qualities in perfection is the sheep demanded by. the farmer. "While the Merino, as is generally acknowledged, has the superior claim in respect to one class of wool, I shall endeavor to show that the Cotswold, Lincoln, and other long-wooled sheep have claims which should not bo over- looked by the farmer. I am satisfied that the wandering Merino, weighing- one hundred pounds, will consume about as much food as the lazy Ootswold weighing 200 pounds ; also that the long-wooled sheep are the most profitable, especially on lov.^ lands where there are coarse grasses. They are just the kind to improve such lands. They will thrive on rank, coarse food, bringing in white clover, and doubling its value in a short time. In regard to my experience since I have lived in Michigan : I commenced with two ewes and two lambs. The ewes were in very low condition, ;ind one showed symptoms of illness ; but they were the best I could get. The ill one died, leaving me with but one ewe and the two lambs ; the lambs did well, but the old ewe never bred after I got her. She throve well, and got very fat. I kept her two years and bvitchered her, and she dressed 112 lbs. . The first year I do not remember the amount of v,'ool, but the second year I sheared 24 lbs. When it was washed and carded I had 18 lbs. .of rolls which made ITf lbs. of yarn. This, at $1 25 a pound, would amount to $22 29, or $7 -13 per sheep. Deduct 25 cents per pound for carding and spinning, and you have 817 75, or per sheep, 85 01-|. The two young ewes had a lamb apiece, which were worth at least $3 each, making |8 91 the product of each ewe that year. The next year I had seven fleeces, vfhich gave me 50-} lbs. of clean wool which I sold for 125 32 ; and I raised six lambs from four ewes, which, at $3 apiece, would be worth 818, making the total |13 32, which I think is doing as well as any short-wooled flock of equal number ; and if sold, they would bring three times what Merinos Avould. I feed clover hay, cut when in full bloom, and cured in the cock, I have fed a little corn, but find that it has a tendency to loosen the v/ool. Peas are the best grain. I do- not intend to feed any grain this year. I shall depend on hay and roots. I have never found any difficulty in bringing my sheep through the winter in good condition. In breeding, I find by observation that lambs dropped in March or May are 12 00 STATE BOAKD OF AGEICULTURE. stronger than in April. The cause I attribute this to is, tliat eating old grass with new irritates the bowels, producing a slight diarrhoea, weakening the ewe, and hence weakening the offspring. Mr. Gumming exhibited a sample of the wool of his CotsNvold sheep, it being Yory long, soft, and glossy. DISCUSSIOX. Mr, Munger. — Are ]iot long-wooled sheep more liable to be troubled with ticks than the iine-woolcd? Mr. Gumming. — Did you ever see a good, fat sheep struggling with ticks? Mr. Munger. — I have ; the Cotswold you are speaking of. Mr. Gumming. — I know that poverty will cause ticks to work. Prof. Pairchild. — The Gotswold have been kept at the college for years, and we have also a fine Lincoln ram. Mr. Gumming. — Don't you consider the Lincoln superior to the Gotswold? Prof. Fairchild. — He certainly is superior in appearance. Mr. Gumming. — I have never owned any Lincoln sheep myself, but some friends of mine living in Ganada, who were among the first importers of long- wooled sheep to America, have discarded all varieties except the Lincoln. S. R. Lewis, Ganges. — Is the fibre of the Lincoln wool f.ner or coarser than that of the Gotswold? Mr. Gumming. — It is finer. Mr. Warner. — Does the gentleman regard Allegan county as a favorable place for sheep-raising? Mr. Gumming. — I live within a mile of the village of Saugatuck, and I don't consider it good for the Gotswold. My sheep have been afflicted Avith a sort of catarrh, or running at the nose. AYliether it is caused by the dampness off the lake I am unable to state. I have tended sheep since I was twelve years old, and I never saw them so universally affected with this catarrh as in this county. Still, they seem to thrive pretty well. I have noticed, also, that when my sheep get to be five or six years old their avooI gets thinner. Whether it is the climate or soil I am unable to state. Mr. Munger. — Is your land sandy? Mr. Gumming. — Mostly a sandy loam. In the summer time my sheep have the run of a partially cleared portion of my farm. Part of it is what might be called low ground. I claim that sheep want water just as much a? a horse or any other animal. Spencer Marsh, Allegan. — I would like to ask the gentleman if he does not think all sheep do better in a dry atmosphere ? Mr. Gumming. — I think they do. Mr. Loomis. — I would like to inquire if the gentleman has ever examined to see if there is not some vegetable, such as Johns-wort, growing upon his soil, which may affect his sheep? Mr. Gumming. — I have never discovered anything of the kind. J. A. Anderson. — Do you consider the Gotswold as hardy as the Merino? Mr. Gumming. — I can hardly answer that question. I know I never saw sheep troubled with the catarrh until I came to the lake shore. Mr. Pratt, Allegan. — The Merinos are just as much afflicted with it as the Cotswold. I lay it to the dampness. I know there are a great many people troubled with the catarrh on the lake shore. FARMERS' INSTITUTES. 91 Kev. Mr. Crawford. — I have been afflicted with catarrh a great many years, but the two years I resided at St. Joseph I suffered less from it than I had in twenty years. At the close of this discussion the meeting adjourned until 2 o'clock P. M. THE AFTERXOOX SESSION Was opened by Prof. A. J. Cook, who delivered the following lecture, entitled FRUIT OK IXSECTS — WHICH? I have no question that, were I gifted enough to correctly state the annual loss to our State and country because of insect depredations, I should find few of you sufficiently credulous to accept my statement, though all of you have too good reasons to expect large figures. Some of our productions, for instance our plum crop, have been generally given entirely over to our enemies, and hence are little thought of. Other of our crops are so constantly raised on thirds, the insects taking one or two-thirds, that we have ceased to possess any idea of a full yield, and so take no heed of our loss. Still other of our products are cut off, withered, or dwarfed, and tlie cause is like the wind ; we see the effects thereof, but know not whither it cometh. Hence it is that nearly all, even of those most closely interested, have no conceiition of the magnitude of their losses from these causes. Wliy, take the apple tree and its product riglit here in our State ; I know of no less than six insects which seriously aifect its vigor by despoiling it of foliage ; four are engaged with too good success in hastening death by mining the trunk ; at least two are sucking the vital fluid from the roots, while no less than five are demonstrating, by actual works, that they appreciate good apples, and mean to gratify their appetites, man's interest notwithstanding. Seventeen on one. Isn't it time to demand fair-play? I have no doubt that could we rescue the spoils from all our insect banditti for three successive years, they would more than cancel our national debt. Surely such a statement ought not to be received with indifference, nor Avill it by the thoughtful and enterprising. That Avas rather a startling remark which was made by one of our country's wisest pomologists at the recent meeting of the Ohio Horticultural Society at _ Toledo, that it is a fact already patent to the far-seeing, and would soon be gen- erally accepted, that the best success with all our fruits, even apples, demands the planting of a succession of orchards. I at once thought that proper atten- tion to this insect question would greatly broaden the intervals of planting. Many orchards in our State have gone on giving ever-increasing returns for fifty years, and single trees for more than one hundred years. Nor need we doubt but that, with wise precaution, such experience may be oft repeated. But it is often asked : What does this important question demand for its solution, and has past experience given us any hope that it may be solved? I briefly answer : Earnest, persistent study and research by the most capable men ; and secondly, that our practical men, those directly interested, should all take " the bull by the horns." In other words, that there should be such in- terest elicited, through grange and club, that every man in every neighborhood of our State should give battle in lines already marked out, and adopt new ones or better ones so soon as they wore suggested by the investigators. As well say that all the children of a neighborhood would be gentle, courteous, and beautif u 93 STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. in heart and soul, because one man gave good and wholesome training, as to say that insects could be kept at bay without concert of action. Suppose one farmer in a community instils into the lives of his children correct moral principles, will that insure the safety of his apples and melons? To be sure his property would be safer even for this wisdom. No more can the codling moth or curculio be exterminated by one man, though his own persistent action would benefit himseK and even his neighbors. No ; the means must be generally made known to all our farmers and fruit-growers, and then all must be fired with such zeal that practice may keep pace with knowledge. But have we any results that show that such a course will bring us respite from these thousand ills which waylay us on every hand? I am mo*t happy to state that such are by no means isolated. It was found by our fruit men of the peach-belt that unless the i)each-borer was fought to the knife, this important interest w^ould prove a failure. The trees would all be speedily killed. It was a case of life and death. Sluggish humanity woke up. Everybody rushed to the fight, and the beautiful peach orchards flourished. Nov.- for tbe sequel : The peach men now tell us that this enemy gives very little trouble. In the same region the curculio, which had utterly whipped us out in plum culture, driving us from the field and taking undis- turbed possession, came all undaunted, flushed with success, and cried surren- der to the peach men. The latter, armed with chips, mallets, one and two- wdieeled artillery, soon brought the little Turks down. '' That bright dream was their last;" and now the fruit men tell us they have no fears of the curculio, and more, that these little snout beetles are yearly gro^ang less. Dr. Trimble and a live farmer's club so aroused the people of Vinelaud, New Jersey, to action that the fruit and region have gained a high reputation as being void of insects. The old mission people up on that favored peninsula at Traverse demand, and, I understand, enforce their edict that all shall enlist in the insect battle. If such action does not attract a society worthy their climate, soil, and position, then the future cannot be judged by the past. In fact, the whole lake shore is giving US lessons on this subject, for which she deserves a hearty vote of thanks. Had I time I could give many other examples, both from home and abroad, that fully sustain the position that real, earziest, persistent effort, and that, too, right in the line of the fullest pocket, — the best financial jirosperity, — is all that is required to rid us of those foes that require so large a share of our gains, and often make us look sad and discouraged in view of our prospects. That our jiomologists may have the loss excuse for that unpardonable neglect that robs themselves and curses their neighbors, I propose to give directions for the care and management of our various orchards, pruned of all matter foreign to the subject, from the standpoint of Economic Entomology, the course of procedure for the year which is demanded by the best success. First, then, I will give directions for the treatment of The Apple Orchard. Nothing is more essential — and this will apply to all orchards — than to keep the trees vigorous. It is the feeble frame that is most susceptible to disease, and that first siiccumbs ; hence thorough and persistent culture, and suitable and sufficient fertilizers, should never be neglected. The seeding down, especially of young, growing orchards, is sure to be followed by a raid from the most destruc- tive insects. Neglect or overcropping will end in the same misfortune. Before the middle of May the rough bark should all be carefully scraped from FAKMEES' INSTITUTES. 93 the trunks and main branches of the trees. This may be done wlien leisure or time will best permit, except it were better that it be loft till the severe cold of winter has passed b)'. The first week of June the trunks and main branches of the trees should re- ceive an application of soft soap, which ought to be repeated, especially if the trees are youno-, the first week of July. This substance may be applied Avith a brush or broom. In May and August certain inseets will spin webs in the trees. These should never be allowed to remain. If examined in the middle of the day they will be found to contain ''worms," the larvae of moths. If ou the end of twigs they may be cut oil and burned, or, wherever tliey be, they may be crushed with the hand, in which case an old buckskin glove may be worn. If not done in the middle of the day the insects may be out of the v/eb feeding upon the foliage, and thus escape. The orchardist should be on the watch, so as to criulicatc these pests at the first onset. Ou or before the 20th of June, bands made of coarse or old woolen cloth, and about four inches wide, should be wound about the tree and fastened with a single tack. Coarse paper or thin wood, such as is used for berry boxe^:, may replace the clotli, yet the jiaper is not as good. The bands need only be long enough to lap sufficiently that a tack may secure it about the tree. These bands are not to be put on any trees that have no frait on them. By the 10th of July some of these bands which surround trees which yield the earliest fruit, as the early harvest, for instance, should be examined. This may be done by drawing the tack, which is never driven quite to the head, with a small tack-hammer, which, for convenience, should be suspended by a cord which surromids the neck. If small "worms," such as are often seen in the fruit, or small silken cocoons, which contain the pupa3 of the same insect, are found, these should ALL be crushed vnth the thumb, and the cloth band adjusted as before. All the bands should be thus examined every ten days till the first of September, when the work may be discontinued till after the apples are all gathered, wlien the bands should be again examined and the insects destroyed. If the bands ou the earliest apple trees are found to contain no insects on the 10th of Jul}', the examination may be discontinued till the 20th, and then examined as before explained. Eooms where apples are kept in summer and autumn, and cellars where they are stored in winter, should be absolutely tight, so that no insect, however small, could possibly escape; and from May to July these should be kept constantly closed. If ventilation is desired in these rooms, it may be secured by putting screens of fine wire gauze in the windows. During the months of July and August the twigs of the apple trees may become blighted. If such is the case, let there be a close examination to deter- mine if the twigs are- tunneled or any insect is found therein. If such is the case, let the twigs be cut off and burned. In August and September the trees should be closely examined, that Ave may learn whether or no the borers are at Avork, This is especially desirable with young trees. If a dark spot appears, caused by discolored bark, through which an opening is seen Avith a sa,wdust-like material protruding, then Avith a sharp knife, and wire rather small, not very flexible, and with a handle, eitiier cut till the borer is found and crushed, or else crush by v\'orking the Avire in the cham- ber, Avhen it is thought the amount of cutting necessary aA'OuM injure the tree. The amount of labor required to do as above recommended is not very great. 94 STATE BOAKD OF AGEICULTUKE. and will almost ensure a \-igorous orchard, and a fine yield of most fair and beautiful apples. A gentleman living in Washtenaw county told me, the other day that from seven and one-half acres of apple orchard he took, the past sea- son, 800 barrels of apples, which sold for $2 00 net, per barrel. Thus the net receipts per acre were $313 33, while for the 7.|- acres they Avere $1,600 00. Do not such returns warrant some care and labor? In fact, few manual labor pur- suits will pay better in our State than the production of apples ; and in no State are the inducements greater to plant large orchards, and give to them every needed attention, that Ave may maintain our present Justly earned reputation of being the first apple State in the Union. The Peach Orchard. It is pleasant to advise in the management of the peach tree, for a fruit so delicious and so valuable v.ill certainly be preserved, if the knowledge is sufficient to accomplish it. In September the peach-groAver should dig about his trees, close to the trunk, and if he finds lumps of earth, chips, and peach gum just beneath the surface, he should find out the borer in the tunnel or wound of the tree, and crush him. The gummy mass leads to a quick discovery, and the labor is so light and so remunerative that it were Avell to go over the orchard in the same way the next season, in April or May, so soon, indeed, as the ground is suitably dry, to enable one to AA'ork it pleasantly. In early May tin bands, tliree inches wide, should be tacked around the tree with a single tack, especially where the soil is light. These bands will keep the cut-worms from reaching the branches and cutting off the buds. Such treatment is also desirable in almost all our orchards, and even in A'ineyards. In May, too, so soon as the peaches have set, the curculio must be fought. This adAice will apply equally well to the plum orchard. And what a loss, not only in luxurious fruit, but also in cash, results from this neglect of the plum orchard in our State ! Instead of raising no plums, Ave might as well, and at slight expense, raise thousands of dollars worth annually. In the first place, keep all grass and weeds aAvay from under the trees : that is, practice perfectly clean culture. This is desirable the season through, but imperative in May and June, would Ave subdue this foe of our two most luscious fruits in the most economical manner. As soon as the plums or peaches are formed, j^lace tAvo chips, or pieces of oak bark, Avith the smooth sur- face down, immediately against the tree on opposite sides, and flat on the ground. ^ NoAV the curculios are nocturnal, and do their wanton business by night ; and until the cool days are past, or along into June, Avill come down from the tree by day and hide under the nearest screen. As the chips are so convenient, they are of course appropriated. These little pilferers Avill lie thus concealed till towards nightfall, Avhen they again betake themselves to the trees to repeat their work of pillage and destruction. ISToav it is easy to take them from under the chips, and thus cut short their evil Avork. The capture is most cheaply made by boys, as f oIIoavs : With a vial in one hand, stopped by the thumb, they turn the chips over, pick off the weeA'ils and put them into the bottles, thus carefully col- lecting from under all the chips of the orchard. This gathering should take place before four o'clock, or some of the curculios may have gone from the chips to the tree, and thus have escaped. In June, Avhen the days begin to get hot, the little "Turks" will not leaA'e the trees even by day, yet if the trees are suddenly jarred as by a sharp bloAV, FAEMEES' INSTITUTES. 95 the curculios will then fall to the earth. Hence we have only to put a sheet under the tree, strike the tree with a mallet, and gather up the beetles as before. If the trees are numerous, the sheet had better be fixed permanently on a frame, in the form of an inverted umbrella, and carried on a cart, to be pushed by han- dles, something as a wheelbarrow is moved. Opposite the handles there is a slit in the sheet, so that the center may be brought immediately under the center of the tree top ; a small tin box may be attached under an opening at the center, with a sliding cover, which may be opened and closed at pleasure by the man at the handles. After the jar is given, the weevils may be shaken into this box, after which the lid will be at once closed. The mallet may rest across the han- dles when not in use. That tlie trees may receive no injury from the blow, a spike should be driven into the same at a convenient height to be easily struck with the mallet. After passing to all the trees, the curculios in the box should be scalded or burned. The Cherry Orchard. If cherry orchards receive visitations from the curculio, so that wormy cher- ries become a source of annoyance, then the trees should be treated in May and June as described above, for the same insect in the peach and plum orchards. In the last days of June, and again in early September, it is not uncommon to notice that the foliage of the cheriy and pear trees turns sear, as if scorched by too close proximity of withering flames. When such an appearance is no- ticed, quick-lime should be thrown into the trees, so that it will surely touch all branches which are thus affected ; if lime is not convenient, road-dust will answer, though it is not so sure or speedy in its eifects. We will thus kill the slugs, the cause of the blight observed, and save our trees from great injury and perhaps from death. The Pear Orchard. If the slug eats the outer skin of the leaves, causing them to wither aud die, practice the same remedy as explained above in treating of the cherry orchard. If the j)ears are wormy, use the bands and scrape off rough bark as mentioned in directions for care of apple orchard. If the trunks are bored and the tr^'igs wither from the effects of an insect, then use the soaj) and burn the twigs as explained while speaking of apple orchards. As a preventive of pear blight, I would advise the soap application in June and July, but would add one-fourth of a pound of concentrated solution of car- bolic acid to eveiy three gallons of soap. This may not prove a cure, though I have faith tliat it \riW prove a benefit. At least, let the experiment be made the coming season, aud the results, whether favorable or unfavorable, reported. Small Fruits. a If the currant-bushes are threatened with defoliation in June, by a green worm," dotted with black, dust the leaves with powdered w'hite hellebore. Or they may be sprinkled with a mixture of hellebore and w^ater, using one ounce of the powder to a pailful of water. Let the currant bushes sprout freely, and the first of June cut out and burn all limber and feeble stems. Bo sure to cut these the first week of June, and do not fail to burn them. When it is contemplated to plant a strawberry bed, the ground should be kept 96 STATE BOAKD OF AGKICULTUHE. well harrowed or spaded for some weeks before setting the plants, and if possi- ble the chickens should be given free access to tlie same. We shall thus be rid of Michigan's Avorst pest to the strawberrjr.grower, the white grub. Here, then, I liave given in brief space rules which, if followed, will remove much of our anxiety as to losses from injurious insects. Should you desire to know more of the insects that do the mischief, and how the advice serves for protection, I would refer you to my pamphlet published last year, which also occuj^ies a place in the Eoport of the State Board of Agriculture for the year 1874. May we iiot hope that you who are directly interested will do your duty to yourselves and neighbors by using eveiy projier effort to secure a general appli- cation of the means explained above, Avhilc ave who are investigating will endeavor to keep you informed as to the latest discoveries, not only of new insect pests which ever and anon will come among us, but also of new and im- proved methods whereby we may circumvent both new and old. By tlius work- ing together we may assuredly triumph over the greatest obstacle and discour- agement that at present confronts the farmers and fniit-grov/ers. Wm. Gumming, Saugatuck. — Is it the same kind of cut-worm v;hich destroys our corn? Prof. Cook. — There are twehe species of cut-worms wliich work in this State. Pour species climb fruit trees and eat the buds, and eight species cut the corn, cabbages, etc. After the moths pair, which produce these ciit-worms, they lay their eggs wherever grass or weeds are found, and the eggs hatch out, and all during the fall the young cut-worms are busy eating the roots of the grass and sometimes the blades, but their depredations this time of year attract but little attention. The next spring they are nearly groAVu, and then the work of destruction goes on. The climbing cut-worm is kept from destroying the buds of the ti'ces by placing tin bands around the trees. These bands are from 2^ to 4 inches in width. Mr. Gumming. — In our part we have tried making a ferule of an old oyster can, j^lacmg it around the roots of a young tree and packing the earth tight around it. This we found to work effectually, and Ave think it an improvement on the tin bands, especially on small trees. Prof. Cook. — I am glad this has been mentioned, for Judge Eamsdell of Traverse City told me that he found this plan an excellent way to fight the peach-borer. The only fault I haA'e to find with this way of dealing Avith the cut-worm is that the pests might come up in the dirt between the tree and the band. Mr. Gumming. — There is another fact I Avould like to state in regard to these borers. Mr. Gerber of Douglas says that when he j^lauted his orchard two years ago, around a portion of the trees he put tan-bark. The trees which had no tan-bark around them were im'ested with the borers, Avhile those surrounded by the bark escaped injiiry. Prof. Cook. — I think very likely the tan-bark may do good, as it has a certain odor, and may serve to keep the borer aAvay. I liaA-e neA^er seen it mentioned before. G. W. Griggsby, Trowbridge. — Will soft soap keep them aAvay? Prof. Cook. — I cannot say as to that. I knov/ positively that soft soaj) will destroy bark lice, and should think it might preyent the borers from laying their eggs, as we knoAV it does the apple-tree borers. FAEMEES' INSTITUTES. 97 A voice. — Whitewash, it is said, will prevent the borer from laying its eggs. Levi Loomis, Ganges. — No tree can live any length of time plastered over with whitewash. Mr. Griggsby. — I was tronbled very mnch Avith the borer, Avatched them care- fully, and could not keep them out until I practiced Avhitewashing, and since that have been troubled but little. I have seen no ill effects from its use. I am told that in Wayne county, Ncav York, they \\?e lime in its full strength with great success. A. S. Dyckman, South Haven. — I think I have put lime on my trees nearly a quarter of an inch in thickness, and have never observed any injury. H. G. Buck, Hopkins. — I have been annoyed by a bug on my grape vines which is represented here as the flat-headed borer. Prof. Cook. — It is not the flat-headed borer, but the rose-chafer. If your vines were so you could shake them, you could put a sheet xmder them and cap- ture the beetles. They are miserable pests. Paris green will kill them, but hardly any one wants to try it. It Avould certainly kill them if sprinkled on the vines Avhen in blossom, and there could hardly be any danger from bad effects. HoAvever, Dr. Kedzie Avould l)e better autliority in regard to the use of Paris green. Dr. Kedzie. — There would be no danger so far as the flesh of the grape is concerned. The only danger there could possibly be is that of the Paris green remaining ujion the grape and being eaten with the grape, and that would be a very improbable thing. In the use of Paris green it should be borne in mind that it is a very rank poison. Prof. Cook. — In Illinois, during the past tAvo or three years, Paris green has been used Avith excellent success to stojD the ravages of the canker Avorm. John. B. Allen, Trowbridge. — I liaA'c found strong soap suds, apjolied to the nests of tlie tent caterpillar Avith a rag tied on a stick, an excellent Avay to kill them. C. AV. Bremen. — When is the best time in the season to catch the apple-borer? Prof. Cook. — The method to prevent its coming is to put soap suds on the trees about the first of June. G. H. Bonnet, Allegan. — Will this piece of tin put on the peach tree prevent the codling moth from going up the tree? Prof. Cook. — The codling moth is a AAanged insect, and can fly like a pigeon. There is no Avay to prevent its eggs being laid, but if you would all practice put- ting bands of cloth around the trees, and destroy the larvse and pupas as men- tioned in the lecture, you AA^ould be Avell paid for your trouble. Keep the rough bark off your trees, and your cellar AvindoAv^s closed by fine Avire gauze. The Avorms in the apples hatch out into moths. On July 8th I counted nine of these moths up against the A\'ire gauze of one cellar Avindow at the college. Mr. Blackman. — In what manner do you apply Paris green to kill the canker Avorm ? Prof. Cook. — Put it on Avith a syringe. Mr. Gumming. — Did you receive some lea\'es of the Clinton grape-vine from E. NcAvman of Saugatuck? He shoAA'ed us some leaA'es which were greatly increased in thickness, and seemed to be filled with myriads of little flying insects. No one there could tell what they Avere. Prof. Cook. — I ncA'er received the leaA-es, but I think, from your description, I knoAv what they are. It was evidently a species of plant louse. If it had no 1)8 STATE BOARD OF AGKICULTUEE. wings, I should say vrithout hesitation it was the leaf or gall form of the Grape Phylloxera, or grape-vine pest of France. Mr. Julius Anderson of Otsego then read the following essay, entitled BREEDING AXD FEEDIN^G SWINE. Essay by J. A. Anderson of Otsego, read at the Farmer'^s Institute. Mk. President and Gentlemen : In writing upon the topic which I have chosen, neither my time nor ability will admit of my attempting an elaborate discussion of so important a subject, and mentioning all the points that are worthy of notice, — which others more learned and experienced might present and make interesting to you, — therefore I shall only give my own ideas, as best I can, which I have gathered from experience and observation ; and if by so doing I can induce any brother farmer to change his course in this matter, and act in future more in keeping with his own best interests and the dignity of our calling, my object will have been fully accomplished. In my opinion there is no subject of more vital importance to the farmers of Michigan than that of breeding and feeding swine ; and at the same time there is none about which the majority of farmers have manifested greater stupidity and carelessness. But some, and I may say many, are beginning to see and appreciate its importance, and are comparing the unsatisfactory results of their own efforts in pork-raising with the paying, and therefore satisfactory experience of their neighbors ; and (with the exception of a certain class who always claim that the way my fatlier and grandfatlicr did is the lest way) they are coming to the conclusion that there is, after all, a difference in breeds not wholly attrib- utable to the swill-pail ; and not only a difference in breeds, but a something about the management and feeding of swine that they do not understand, which produces such widely varying results. Therefore a spirit of inquiry into the real causes is manifested, and it betokens good. That success depends much upon proper breeding, no sensible man will dis- pute. The successful breeder seeks first for animals of good form and good constitution. He also looks to a clear pedigree. In the selection of a breed, many circumstances, liis associations, and his taste control him largely. But for profit, a breed which matures early, and which will yield the largest amount of fine pork at a given age and from a given amount of feed, must take the preference. These points I had in view in making a selection for my own use, and in my judgment the Poland China possesses these qualities to a higher degree than any other known breed. At all events, I have never seen cause to regret my choice. That much has been, and may still be done in the improve- ment of swine, by crossing the native and mixed breeds with the pure, there is no room for doubt, but this should be done in all cases by the use of the thor- oughbred male. A serious objection, however, to mixed breeding, is a tendency to unevenness in breeding. The most satisfactory results may be attained, and with the greatest degree of certainty, by beginning with thoroughbreds, and then keeping strictly Avithin the breed, always avoiding the coupling of near relations. This last suggestion is based upon the principle that every individual has its excellencies and defects, and (as Prof. Jones of Iowa says) ''near relations are likely to possess the same excellencies and defects, and by coupling such rela- tions both excellencies and defects are aggravated and intensified." Therefore the defects may be so intensified as to destroy the utility of the product again. Breed together anim als of like character. The product will be like the parents : FAKMEES' INSTITUTES. 99 they will be even and sure. But with all these suggestions in regard to the selection of breeding stock carried out, a failure is inevitable unless proper attention is given to the general comfort and the feeding of the mothers at all times, but more especially during ths period of gestation. A large share of farmers are too careless and indifferent to the wants of their domestic animals at this critical period. Want of proper food, of comfortable shelter and places of rest, worried by dogs and more cruel men and boys, it is no wonder that dis- ease, abortions, and weakened vitality of tlie race ensue. And I venture the assertion, without fear of contradiction, that, generally speaking, the pig is the most neglected and abused animal we have under domestication, and none yield a better j^ercentage of profit when properly handled and cared for. My experi- ence and observation have taught me that sows kept for Ijreeding should neither be starved nor made very fleshy ; but should be fed with a view to the most per- fect health and vigor. Confining in a close pen is decidedly injurious. They should have sujBBcient range for exercise, with such a variety of food as their instincts call for. As the time of f arro\ving approaches more generous feeding is required, as there is an increased demand upon the "vitality of the sow which should be met by a full diet. But this, instead of being a stinted allowance of dry corn, thrown out in a snow-bank, on the ice, or in the mud, as the case may be, should be composed mostly of green, succulent, and light diet, carefully avoiding all heating and stimulating food. House and daily slops, bran, shorts, or coarse provender, -with good pasture range in summer ; in winter some kinds of both vegetable and animal food is advisable. I would discard diy corn alto- gether. About the time of farrowing the sow should have a well sheltered place by herself, free from all annoyances, and little or no feed the next day after, as a pail of swill often proves fatal to the sow, especially in hot weather. In the rearing of pigs the sow should have good pasture range, and the trough should be made in such a way that the pigs can eat with the sow, which they will soon learn to do, and thus relieve the mother, and be prepared to go by themselves at eight or ten weeks of age, without materially checking their growth, after which time tliey should have about the same kind of feed as given the sow, until fairly weaned. After the weaning, in the absence of clover pasture, I have never found any feed better adapted to their growth and development than corn with a liberal mixture of oats, ground together. In the absence of oats, plenty of bran or coarse middlings mixed with corn meal works well ; and in the absence of corn and oats they Anil do finely on mill-feed alone. The feeding of sAvine at the time of fattening is a point of vital interest to all engaged in j)ork-making, and in no part of farm management do the majority of farmers act more regardless of economy and their own best interests, and do their work ui so slovenly a manner as in this j^articular. The complaint may be heard from many farmers the country over, "My hogs are not fattening as I would like to see them, and as they ought to for the feed they have. I give them all the corn they can eat." Still the results are unsatisfactory. Visit their pens, and you will see evidences of an indiscriminate waste of feed and valuable time at a season when the porkers should be making rapid strides toward their last resting-place, the pork-barrel. Yes, waste of feed, — corn (in the ear, of course.) enough on the floor to feed them from one to three days, and more (if dry and hard) than ought to be given them during the whole process of fatten- ing. If your visit is made at or near the hour of feeding, the pigs are too dull to show themselves ; not because they have eaten too much, but because their a2:)pe- tites are cloyed, and they have no relish for the dry, hard, uninviting morsels 100 STATE BOAKD OF AGRICULTUKE. given them so lavishly. At the same time pour into the trough (if there is one) a liberal allowance of well ground feed, mixed witli cold water even (to say noth- ing of having it warm and inviting), and they will show themselves on a double quick, and eat as tliough they had just observed a day or two of fasting and absti- nence. Who need wonder at unsatisfactory results? Tliey are but the legiti- mate results of such a course. It is a fact too well established to leave any ground for argument, that ground feed, Avell mixed with house and dairy slops or water (and if scalded or cooked all the better), will jiay liberally, not only in the saving of feed, but in the time required to tit an animal for market, as well as in the satisfaction of seeing your pigs flourishing and contented under your care. But to secure the best possible results from tliis kind of food, attention should be paid to regularity in feeding in regard to time ; and to secure a good appetite, healthy digestion, and a keen relish for food, a little salt should bo added to it, either in the swill-barrel or otherwise. A few wood ashes occasion- ally are also a good appetizer, as well as a preventive of disease. In regard to quantity of food, never feed more than will be eaten with a relish and the trough licked out. By following these rules closely, and by proper attention to cleanliness, no farmer need fail to secure satisfactory results from his efforts in fattening swine. Why not practice common sense and economy in breeding and fattening pigs as well as elsewhere? Try it, all who have not, and, my word for it, it will pay you as well, aiid you will feel as well satisfied with this as ■with any reformatory change in your farm management. Discussio]sr. Henry Shultes. — Have you ever kept an account to see whether you realized full cash value for the grain which you have fed to your hogs? Mr. Anderson. — I have never kept any accurate account any more than I have in wheat-growing. I am much better satisfied Avith my efforts in raising- and fattening swine than in raising and fattening cattle. Prof. Cook. — You spoke of the Poland China : Do you tliink them better than tlie Essex or Berkshire? Mr. Anderson. — I do, on account of size ; and I have never seen any other breed that would mature earlier. Mr. Sherwood. — How early will they mature? Mr. Anderson. — I butchered three pigs in December which were dropped last April, and one of them dressed 310, one 309, and the lightest 286. Mr. Shepard. — Have you ever tried cooking food for swine V Mr. Anderson. — I have never gone further than scalding it ; but there is no doubt of the beneficial results of such a course. Spencer Marsh. — Did you ever try meal without wetting it? Mr. Anderson. — I have ; but I never could get my pigs to eat it in a satisfac- tory way. Mr. Marsli. — My experience has been that I got the best results in fattening hogs by dry feed. Levi Loomis. — A few years ago the Suffolk breed ■\^as recommended by nearly every farmer, and I would like to inquire if that breed has run out, or has it been discarded for the Poland China or some other? Mr. Sutherland. — I have had experience with the Suffolk hog, and have also raised the Poland China; and I think anyone who has raised the two breeds will say we have taken a long step forward by discarding the former for the latter. In the first place, the Suffolk are too liglit bone to cany the weight FARMEES' INSTITUTES. 101 which they will put on. My exiaerience has been that when you get a })en of Suffolk hogs nearly ready for slaughter, some of them will break down ; whereas you can load the flesh right on to a Poland China, and he can stand up and carry it around. They are also of a quiet nature, which is a very important feature. Mr. Anderson. — I suppose there is no douljt whatever of the superiority of the Poland China over the Suffolk. I know of no pure Suffolk in this countiy, although there may be. Mr. Smith, of Detroit, breeds them quite extensively, and also the Berkshire and Essex. Some of these gentlemen have spoken of the great Aveight which the Poland China can carry. Mr. Brackett, formerly of Marshall, had a hog which dressed nearly 750 pounds. Just before he killed him some friends were astonished to hear him state what they thought the incredible amount of Aveight Avhich the Poland China hog could carry. Mr. Brackett is a man who weighs 140 pounds, and he stepped right upon the shoulders of the hog, and it never crippled under him. I have never seen a hog with a=i good a leg to carry weight, and yet mature as early. I butchered three pigs this fall which came in April, and I marketed them in this village about eight weeks ago, and they brought me nearly $54. I have three more in the pen which I showed at the county fair, and on which I received first premium. They are so fat that I shall be obliged to kill them very soon. They came about the first of May, and some estimate their weight as high as 300 pounds. I don't think they will dress that, but so far as my experience goes they excel anything I have ever seen. Mr. Ferris. — I Ijought a male pig of this breed during the fair, and put him with my other pigs, and in about three weeks he got so fat he could hardly walk. I had actually to take him away from the other pigs, and starve him right down. If tliere are any finer hogs around the country than he is I don't find them. Mr. Sutherland. — I can tell him where ho can find a? handsome a one as he can see anywhere. I bought a pig two years ago, and I put him on a diet so I knew just what ho was eating, and he became very fat, but he could get around for all of tliat. I never knew a Poland China to cripple up unless put on a plank floor and kept there. It is a singular thing to me that a Poland China hoo- should be unable to walk. Mr. Blackman. — I would like to ask Mr. Anderson what are the best points in a hog for breeding or fattening purposes. Mr. Anderson. — My idea is that the best points in a hog are early maturity, and the greatest amount of pork from a given amount of feed. I presume Mr. Blackman understands the good points in a hog as well as I do. Good length and breadth, a good shoulder and ham, and a bone of sufficient size to hold up the necessary weight, are points which should not be overlooked. Mr. Loomis. — I find, in looking over the stock pens in Chicago, that in Illi- nois and Iowa tliey invariably raise the small-bone hog. The breeders claim they mature quicker, and require loss feed for the same amount of flesh. One man who brought in five car-loads of his own raising claimed that the small China hog, crossed with the Poland, gave a hog which would mature early, and takes but a small amount of feed to bring it up to 250 pounds. This is about the class of hogs you find in the yards at Chicago, and they have l^eon bred for the profit there is in them. If those breeders have the right idea, then there is a wrong here in breeding large-bone hogs. The large hogs which reach that market are most always maimed, for they can't stand jamming in cars, or driv- ing either. 102 STATE BOARD OF AGEICULTURE. Mr. Anderson. — I -would like to state, in regard to the hogs wliicli I am breed- ing, that Mr. Jones of Eichland, Kahxmazoo county, of Avhom I jDurchased, informed me that he bought in Ohio some of both sexes from two distinct fami- lies, called the large-bone and small-bone Poland China. These varieties he crossed, and the hogs I now have are products of that cross. The first Poland China which I bought of Mr. Bracket, and butchered a year ago this fall, was fed no grain during the summer, and had June grass instead of clover. He got no grain at all until I turned him into my wheat stubble, where I kept him until I took him up to fat. I butchered him in Decenil:)er, and he dressed 564 pounds. I might easily have put another hundred pounds on him, if I had fed grain during the summer. I have no doubt at all that I fatted that hog and raised him as cheaply as I have a great many hogs of other varieties which did not dress 300 pounds. Mr. Henry Shultes, of Martin, next read the following essay, entitled : KAISING HAY AND FATTENING CATTLE. The grass crop of this state, as well as the other states of the union, is among the most important of its products, and the question how to raise a sufficient amount of liay to projDcrly feed the stock which ought to be kept on the farm, is one which ha? sorely perplexed many a farmer. Especially has this been the case during the last three or four years, when excessively dry weather during the growing season has been the rule, and moist weather the exceptioji. On every hand we hear the complaint from farmers: "My grass seed failed to catch on account of the drouth." AYhile it may be, and undoubtedly is true, that extremely dry weather during the latter part of the spring and early sum- mer have contributed in no small degree, it is equally true that tlie difficulty may be partially traceable to other causes. The desire to produce those crops which may be most easily and speedily converted into money has induced many a Michigan farmer to direct all his energies to tlie raising of wheat, barley, oats, and corn ; and these products have been sold from the farm from year to year, while little or nothing has been returned to the soil to restore the fertility thus taken away. At length, when inferior yields admonish the hiTsbandman that his soil is becoming exhausted by these repeated croppings, and he concludes to seed his lands to grass, to his great surprise his seed does not "^ catch." Unwilling to charge this result to his own mismanagement, he attributes it to drouth, frost, or anything beside the real cause. Assuming that Ave find the farmer in this situation, how to make a meadow becomes a serious question. To rescue the soil from its barrenness and restore its fertility, is the point toward which the first effort should be directed. To sow grass seed on land, on wdiich repeated experiments have demonstrated that it will not grow, is sheer folly. In making a meadow, I would recommend, first, summer-fal- lowing thoroughly, thereby destroying all weeds and rendering available for the growth of grass every particle of fertility remaining in the soil. Next, I would spread upon tlie surface all the barnyard manure obtainable, together with ashes (which, by the way, are a very good fertilizer), and g3'p^um or plaster. I would leave the plaster and ashes, and the manure, if well rotted, upon the sur- face, or slightly Avorked in Avith the cultivator. Then, about the first of Sep- tember, soAv six quarts of timothy seed to the acre, and in early i-pring four quarts of clo\'er seed to the acre. Clover seed should be sown Avhen the ground is honey-combed AA'ith frost, and befoi'e it is settled. If the ground to be soAvn is reasonably fertile, wheat may be soAvn or drilled in at the same time Avith the timothy seed ; Imt if the field has been exhausted by repeated croppings it would FAKMEES' INSTITUTES. 103 be better to allow the grass undisputed possession, and the result would hardly fail to be a "'good catch." "When the ground is well settled, so that a team and wagon can be driven on it Avithout injury, plaster sown on it at the rate of one hundred pounds to the acre, would on mo-t soils prove a prolitable invest- ment. Following this mode of treatment, a fair crop of grass might reasonably be expected the first season after seeding, with increasing yields during succeed- ing years. The foregoing is written for that too numerous class of farmers who, by injudicious management, have impoverished their farms to such an extent that raising grass seems impossible, and between this time and spring they will be seen traveling about the country with wagon and hay-rack in search of the farmer who has hay to sell on credit ! The good farmer needs no instruction from me. His farm is kept in good condition, and by a judicious application of fertilizers, his crops, both of grass and grain, grow better each succeeding year. There is one practice, however, that prevails among good farmers, and against whicli I here enter an earnest and emphatic jn'otest. I allude to the custom of pasturing newly seeded grass lands during the autumn after the wheat crop has been taken off ; a practice which, in my oj)inion, ought to be strongly condemned. The roots of the young timothy during the first season have but a slight hold upon the ground, and animals, in pasturing upon it, pull it up to such an extent as to seriously impair the subsequent growth. This is particularly the case in dry weather, and in very wet weather the injury is scarcely less from tramping the young plants into the soft ground. I lay it down as a principle susceptible of general application, that no animals should be allowed to graze upon land the first year after being laid down to grass, and never upon land intended for meadow from the first day of September until the crop of hay is taken off the season following. The cutting and curing of hay, of which I had purposed saying something, hav^ing been assigned to an abler pen, I pass by, and proceed to the other division of my subject ( " Fattening Cattle" ) ; and here, I frankly confess at the outset, that what I don't know about this subject, would, if told, occupy much more space on paper than the facts with which I am acquainted. Though there lias been scarcely a winter during the last twenty years in which I have not fattened several head of cattle, I have not con- ducted the matter in that systematic manner by which accurate results are ob- tained . That the business of feeding cattle for market has been a source of profit to me, I have no doubt. That it would prove equally advantageous to any and every one who might engage in it, I seriously question. Like every other occupation, feeding cattle for market requires the exercise of good judgment in the selection of animals to be fed, and experience, in care and feeding, to secure the best results. Even with these requisites, the practical feeder may not always realize a greater net profit for hay and grahi fed to animals tlian he would have received for the same products if sold in the market ; but by manufacturing those pro- ducts into fertilizing material for enriching the farm, he can Scarcely fail to be the gainer in the end. But without theorizing further I will briefly give my practice in fattening cattle. My barn is one of those old-fashioned structures built when Allegan county was considered younger than it is at present, and it was deemed essential for the good of the products to be stored in said barn, that there be cracks or openings of from one-half to three-fourths of an inch in width between the boards iised for enclosing it, in order to permit the free circulation of air. Beneath the frame of the barn I have constructed a basement 68 feet long by 36 feet wide and nine feet high, with a stone wall on three sides, in which are stables for feeding cat- 104 STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTUEE. tie. My custom lias been to buy cattle (steers generally) from two to ihtee years old, during the summer and fall, or whenever I could strike a bargain that seemed desirable. And right here comes in the necessity of exercising good Judgment. There are animals that are dear at almost any price at which they might be purchased, for feeding purposes. Among these may be mentioned old oxen, stags, and animals which have been half starved during the early stages of their growth, and a farmer can scarcely put good hay and grain to a worse use than feeding them to such animals. I never purchased but one pan' of old oxen to fatten, and although they were purchased at a low price, as I thought, they were the poorest investment in cattle that I ever made. I lay it down as a rule, with slight variations, that the feeder should buy none but young and thrifty cattle. When pasture gets short in autumn, or grass is frost- bitten, commence fodder or liay, and a little meal should be given to keep the animal in a growing and thrifty condition. After the middle of October in this latitude, cattle may profitably be stabled every night. The man who attempts to fatten cattle, with the cold, frosty ground for a bed and a rail fence for a shelter, will find himself making progress in the wrong direction. "Wlien cold weather sets in, I deem it best that the cattle to be fattened should be confined to the stall during most of the day, and I am by no means certain that they are benefited by being allowed to run out at all. liowever, it is a convenience to turn them out to water, Avhicli should always l)e near at hand, and in sufficient quantities. Running the gauntlet of half a mile or more, harrassed by men and dogs, and at last drinking out of a muddy pond through a hole cut in the ice, is not a strong incentive to growth or laying on of flesh ; and yet it is a fact that thousands of cattle in the State of Michigan have only the alternative of total abstinence from drink, or obtaining it in the manner suggested. Dig a well near your barn, and put a windmill over it to pump your water (unless you have abetter source of supply), and if you are '^\4ntering a dozen head of cattle annu- ally the mill will pay its cost long before you die of old age. As to the amount of feed to bo given to each animal, no specific directions can be given. Nature is so capricious in her moods that while of too animals of equal size and appear- ance one may eat and digest properly twelve quarts of meal per day, the other may fail to eat half that amount. I am feeding, for beef, ten head of cattle, two and three years old. Each animal is fed of oats and corn meal, ground together in the proportion of two bushels of corn to one of oats, three quarts in the morning, then all the timothy hay they will eat until two or three o' clock in the afternoon. They are then turned out to water, the stables cleaned and bed- ded with straw, mangers cleaned out, and the cattle again put in and fed three quarts of meal each. After this each animal is fed one and a half bushels of chopped corn-stalks, which makes the allowance for twenty -four hours. I would prefer a greater variety of feed, such as carrots, ruta-bagas, or mangel-wurzels, but have heretofore not been successful in my efforts to raise any of these crops. I shall increase the amount of meal fed as the season advances, and do not expect to put my cattle in the market until April, or perhaps later. I have here outlined, not very briefly, my views on the subject of fattening cattle. I do not profess to have achieved eminent success in the business. On the contrary, I am fully aware that I have yet much to learn as a feeder of cattle. What I have written has been not so much with the expectation of imparting instruction, as with the hope of drawing out and profiting by the experience of others. If in what I have written there shall be found a sugges- tion that sh&ll prove profitable to any individual, or shall incite others to give FAEMEES' INSTITUTES. 105 their experience on the subjects herein touched npon, I shall feel that my object has been fully attained. DISCUSSION. Mr. Tomlinson. — Do you consider hay a first-rate article for fattening cattle? Mr. Shultes. — I think good hay is a good thing to feed ; but I don't know as a man can get ^15 a ton for his hay by putting it into beef. Mr. Tomlinson. — I a^ked the question because I lately read an article in the New York Tribune, from Prof. Arnold, in Avhich he considered dry hay, in a measure, indigestible ; and he claimed that grass was the true standard to go by- Mr. Shultes. — Hay is the next thing to greeu grass for fattening cattle ; the time of cutting and curing it is, however, a matter of considerable importance. I cut my hay when it is nicely in blossom, and cure it with as little exposure to the dew as possible. Hay that is fully ripe is of little value. Mr. Loomis. — Do you ever try sowing your grass seed when you drill in your wheat? Mr. Shultes. — I sometimes seed at the time the wheat is sown. If I don't ■sow my grass seed in the fall, I wait in the spring until the ground is sufficiently dry and then I go over it -with the harrow. My soil would be called -a clay loam. It is underlaid with gravel to the depth of about three feet. Mr. Blackman. — AMiat kind of grass, do you think, makes the best kind of hay for fattening puqioses? Mr. Shultes. — About 25 per cent of clover, — usually less, — and the other portion timothy. Mr. Jewett. — How long do you allow meadows to be seeded before breaking up again? Mr. Shultes. — N"ot more than two or three years. I think four times is the most I ever mowed a meadow in succession. Spencer Marsh. — Do you over cut hay when the seed is fully formed? Mr. Shultes. — I have, some. That used to be the rule, and it wa? said that you got both hay and grain ; but I failed to find that it Avas either. Mr. Loomis. — Grass-growing is getting to be an important question. You go into adjoining counties, where they use plaster liberally, and you will find they cannot grow grass. I would like to know if there is any man here who can give us a reason for this. Isn't this getting to be the ca=e in Allegan county? Mr. Blackman. — I have sowed plaster for the last twenty years, and gener- ally have good success in getting a good stand of clover. The drouth has killed it sometimes, but I can see no difference in late and former years. - Mr. Loomis. — That is not the case with men in Calhoun county. Some of the best farmers of that county cannot grow grass. Some of these farmers have sold all their hav, grain, and wheat for years, and they now find it impos- sible to seed their ground. I haven't sold as much hay as I have given away iii the last 25 years, and I never have any trouble in dry weather, Now, there is sometliing wrong, and if this thing hasn't got into Allegan county, don't let us allow it to get here. Mr. Sailor. — I was brought up in Pennsylvania, where the people don't see after four clock, but you can hardly get one of those farmers to sell a pound of hay or a pound of straw. They raise timothy and clover, and believe in a rota- tion of crops ; but you can't get them to sell their hay or straw, and the conse- quence is I never saw finer farm products than they raise. They believe in the 14 106 STATE BOAED OF AGEICULTUEE. principle that it is "vvhat you put on the land, not what you take off, which makes it rich. Mr. Bigsby. — I think the trouble is that we take too much from our meadows without putting anything back. In the early part of the season some of oui* farmers turn their stock into the highways until they secure a crop of hay, and then they turn in their stock and pasture these meadows until nothing is seen. The consequence is that there is nothing to protect the roots of the grass, and it soon dies out. "What straw they raise is usually sold for $1 per load, and in this way of managing the soil is entirely exhausted. Mr. Shepard. — There is no difficulty, as a general thing, in getting a good catcli of clover. That is, it will spring up and grow until the dry weather comes on, and then it dies out. There ought to be another crop on the ground to hold the moisture. Mr. Shultes. — I sow my timothy in the fall and the clover in the spring ; then there is something to cover the ground and hold the moisture. A heavy crop of wheat growing and maturing on that ground will kill the clover, unless there are rains very frequently. I soAved my clover once Avhen I sowed my Avheat. The young clover came up pretty nice, and when about two inches high there came on a hard frost and killed it. That was my last experiment of sowing clover seed in the fall. Spencer Marsh. — It strikes me that land that is capable of producing wheat is also capable of giving clover a start. My exj)erience is that clover growing with wheat is less liable to drouth than when crowing alone. The gentleman thinks Ave cannot do Avithout hay. I raise but Aery little, as my land is not adapted to it, and I depend on corn stalks. My father had a farm, Avlien I Avas a boy, capable of producing tAvo or three tons of hay to the acre, and he used to think his cornstalks more valuable than his hay crop. A Avord in relation to the time of cutting hay. A gentleman near Philadelphia made careful experi- ments in regard to early and late cutting, and he discarded early cutting. That Avas the experience of my father. He Avas the last man to cut his grass, and when asked for a reason, would reply, "Ask my cattle and horses. They can tell the Avhole story better than I can." Mr. Amsden. — I Avould like to ask Dr. Kedzie in relation to the relative value of a load of straAv and a load of muck. Ur. Kedzie. — It is according to hoAV you use your straAV or hoAv you use your muck. As far as the valuable ash elements are concerned, there is more in a load of Avheat straw than in the muck ; but a? far as nitrogen is concerned, the muck contains tlie most. Mr. Amsden. — The reason why I asked the question Avas this : AVe had on the old farm a little lot called the meadoAV ; and to my certain knoAvledge, for fifteen years in succession we mowed as large a SAvath as a man could put aside. It was the clean timothy. Every sjDring a small brook flowed it for some five or six weeks, and my theory was that the brook brought doAvn the elements of the muck and distributed them OA'er the field, Avhich caused this remarkable yield of grass year after year. Dr. Kedzie. — In addition to the vegetable matter brought doAvn, we find that most of the Avater in the streams of the country is hard, and contains sulphate of lime and alkaline salts in solution. These materials, deposited by the Avaters over the surface of the meadoAV, account for the marvellous crops of hay. Mr. Loomis. — I Avould like to ask the doctor if farmers should use salt upon their lands? FAEMEES' INSTITUTES. 107 Dr. Kedzie.— ^This salt question is an cxteusive one, and it would require the rest of the afternoon and evening to fully answer that question. One marked influence of salt is in prolonging the period of growth, and preventing the too early ripening of a crop. On sandy lailds the crops tend to complete their growth and ripen their leaves too early. On such soils salt counteracts this tendency and may increase the yield of crops thereby. In clay soils there is the opposite tendency to prolong the period of growth, and on such soils the salt might be injurious by increasing this tendency. Mr. Tomlinson. — I would like to have Dr. Kedzie tell us how we can imj^rove our pine barrens. Dr. Kedzie — I have never had an opportunity to examine the soil or the pine lands of Allegan county, and I can say nothing on the subject. S. K. Lewis. — Will the use of salt on sandy soil prevent the ravages of the- cut-worm ? Dr. Kedzie. — From experiments tried at the Agricultural College, we found that an amount of salt that would kill cut-worms would also destroy everything growing upon the soil. Of course salt in proper quantities is beneficial to many kinds of crops. Mr. Loomis. — AV'ho can give us the best tlieory of manuring our lands, espe- cially those at a great distance from the barns? Spencer Marsh, — A good farmer in the town of Parma, Jackson county, took me over liis fine farm and said he could replenish his hind much ea-ier and cheaper by clover than he could by drawing manure from tlie barn-yard. Another farmer who used to raise from 10 to 15 bushels to the acre, told me he was not content now unless he got from 20 to 25 bushels to the acre. He kept his land up by clovcring and plowing the clover under. He also kept a great many sheep. Dr. Kedzie. — One of the most intelligent farmers in the United States, George Geddes of New York, told me that by the use of plaster and clover, Avithout the addition of a solitary i)ound of manure, he raised crops for thirty years, and at the end of that time tlie land was in better condition than when he began. EVENING SESSION. The closing session of this Institute commenced with the following lecture by Mr. K. G. Carpenter, C. E., on llOAD MAKING. Road making is an ancient art, and histories, as well as tiie remains of old roads, attest that in ages gone by, better roads were in process of construction than are being made to-day. The necessity for roads depends upon the amount of social or commercial intercourse between the inhabitants of any given country or countries. This age, though surpassing all other ages in the amount of its travel, has given little attention to the subject of common roads, probably because the rail- roads of to-day better meet the transportation demand. I would not wish to lower in any way your high opinion of railroads : they 108 STATE BOAED OF AGRICULTUKE, are of immense importance, and have done onr country an incalculable amount of good ; but is it not possible, with our great desire for railroads, to entirely lose siglit of the more important interest? Eailroads are expensive, and we can afford to place them only on our most important thoroughfares. Common roads alone must be relied on for all ordinary business matters. No man is content until a road passes near his door, though the majority are contented with a very poor road. So far as the quantity of road is concerned, the people are generally very alert, but the consideration of the quality is frequently en- tirely neglected, AYitli our railroads we have reached a high degree of perfection : we have reached a point far ahead of even the conception of the jiossible 50 years ago. In 1825, Wood, in an article on railroads, says: "Nothing can do more harm to the adoption of railroads than the promulgation of such nonsense as that we shall see locomotive engines traveling at the rate of 12, IG, 18, and 20 miles per hour.' ' Yet you all know how it is now. Even 20 years ago, Ritchie in an article on railroads, states that an express train on the Great Western Rail- way (England), drawing 59 tons, has traveled for three hours at the rate of 63 miles per hour." And to-day no place of great importance is vdthout its rail- road. Mile upon mile has been crowded into existence, until our country pos- sesses at least 00,000 miles, — enough to double track the whole globe at the equator and give 10,000 miles for other purposes. We have carried railroad- ing to such an extent that instead of keeping our railroads within the pale of civilization, we have pushed them far beyond the borders of the settled country, miles and miles into the unbroken wilds. A few years ago travellers on the plains used to tell us that the vicinity of a settlement was unmistakably shown by the presence of what was then known as the "signs of civilization," viz., the whisky-bottle and newspaper. It is differ- ent now, though it is doubtful if tlie influence of either the bottle or the news- jjaper has in any way been lessened, but the railroad has outstripped them both, and stands with iron rails and telegraj^h lines, a silent sentinel, far beyond the borders of civilization, yet ever pointing to the region of intelligence from whence it came. So much we can say for our railroads. How much can we say for our com- mon roads? It is true they outnumber the railroads, and exceed them, in length. But they fall so far below them in quality and in excellence that there are but few miles of really good road in this State. This difference between the comi:)arative merits of railroads and common roads is readily explained when we notice the different methods of building and keeping in order. Erom first to last the railroad is the development of a systematic 2>lan, the workings of which is shown not only in its location and construction, but also in the constant labor which keeps it in working order. What would you think the condition of a railroad would be which employed no trackmen, but kej^t the track in order by annually making a "bee," and throwing the whole force of employes to "fixing track" for a few days? Such a road Avould be in a bad condition, — probably like some of the southern roads who advertise "two tiips weekly." That is, they go up one week and try to get back the next. Such a system would make every railroad in our country a failure at once. It is absurd to even think of applying such a system to railroading ; yet it is the only system we have in this State for mending common roads, and they are cer- tainly more essential to the welfare of our people. FAKMERS' INSTITUTES. 109 The poor conditiou of our common roads is due almost entirely to the absence of any general system, either of construction, repairing, or working. You are doubtless not only well acquainted with those portions of our laws that relate to highways, but you know much in regard to their practical work- ings. Summed up briefly, they are as follows : The general superintendency of the highways and bridges is given in each township to the commissioner of highways, who is elected for one year, by ballot, and whose duties consist in a proper subdidsion of his townshij) into districts, and the general direction of the work. He may be lined for any neglect of duty. At each town meeting an overseer for each road district is chosen, viva voce, whose duty is to take immediate charge of the work in his district, and see that each inliabitant discharges his road tax as provided by law. He is also liable for any injury or damage occasioned by his neglect of duty. Tliis looks very well on paper, but you all knoAV how it works in practice. The tax -payers are summoned to work on the road, not at the season of the year Avhen their work will do the most good, but to suit their own convenience, be that time early in the spring, in midsummer, or in autumn. The men fre- ([uently act as tliough they had no taste for the work, and seem determined to do as little as the overseer will accept ; and as he is from their own number, and apt to be among them in another yeai*, he is satisfied with a very small amount. The day's work done on the road would not generally be accepted by the very man who does it, (if he had to pay for it) for more than one-half or one-third of a day's work ; and it is little wonder that our roads are no better to-day than they were twenty years ago. It is the general custom to change the overseers each year. The effect of this is to keep the road district trying new plans and commencing improvements, but finishing nothing, and frequently, instead of improving roads they are posi- tively injuring them. For instance, one overseer determines to put all the work of his district in filling up a hole now covered with logs. He removes the logs, but the work is insufficient to finish the Job, and it has to lay over another year. His successor, thinking something else needs more attention, — perhaps he is an advocate of turnpiking ; at least he throws the whole force to work at something else in some other portion of the district, so that among the different plans, and between the different overseers, no one plan is carried into execution, but the beginnings of many are worked out on the road, often entirely ruining and ren- dering nearly impassable a formerly good thoroughfare. Again, our overseers are seldom if ever competent to superintend road -making. The making of roads is a life study ; and if we expect or wish competent road superintendents we must prepare to pay them ; and if we wish good, fair days' work done, we must abolish this old feudal system of working out the road tax, and have our work done by contract and pay for it in money. "There is no excellence Avithout labor," is an old maxim, but as ajoplicable to road -making as to any other jiursuit of life. It is useless to discuss the best methods of making broken stone roads or gravel roads or Telford roads, until we feel we have within us a power that can be made to "\\ork uji and develop any systematic plan of true road- imj^rovement that may be adopted. That power will only arise when legislative action shall have abolished our present system. Characteristics of a Good Road. The only essential thing, so far as the traffic is concerned, is the surface. Of course tlie foundation has much to do with the durability of a road, and even 110 STATE BOAED OF AGRICULTUKE. affects the surface, and would have to be considered in all cases involvino; a dis- cussion of the methods of construction or of repairing ; but since it is entirely concealed, we judge roads entirely by the surface they present. The surface should be sufficiently hard as not to be cut into ruts by passing vehicles. It should be even, and so flat that vehicles, in all positions on its surface, will stand upright, and it should have no grades so steep as to require extra motive power in ascending, or the use of the brake in descending. Of course such roads will be expensive. You can not expect any great improvements without some cost, but I think you will find good roads very cheap, — that is if you value your time as worth anything ; though it is a lament- able fact that " time and money" are disconnected ideas with the farmer very frequently. The cost of making good roads is not largely in excess of what we pay each year, in time, for the privilege of dragging our wagons through the mud, or of biting our tongues and otherwise mutilating our bodies in riding over bare corduroy roads, or of climbing up a hill for the express purpose of clamber- ing down again. The cost of a good road will depend on the character of the country through which it is to pass, as hills, marshes, and rivers add much to its cost. It will also depend on the kind and amount of traffic ; for if the traffic is heavy the road covering will need to be thick, and vice versa. It will also depend on the cost of the road covering. All of these considerations will have to be decided independently for each road. The cost per mile will vary from $100 to $1,000 for the ordinary roads of Michigan. Cost of Poo?' Koads. The determination of the actual cost of our poor roads would be a problem of no great complexity were we in possession of statistics of amount of travel, rate of traveling, amount of road tax, etc. ; but no such statistics are taken, neither can they be taken, with our present road system. We have assumed a case which will not differ materially from our ordinary roads. Suj^pose, as is frequently the case, that 30 teams pass each day over a portion of road 20 miles in length which is in such a good condition as to reduce the load to only two- thirds of what could have been taken over in the same time on the same length of good road ; there is a waste each day by each man and team of one-third of a day's work, and for the 20 teams and men for a whole year of 300 days, this amounts to 2,000 days work of man, team, and wagon, or a year's work for nearly seven men, teams, and wagons. This work, if paid for at the usual price of $3 per day, would amount to 16,000. In addition to this, we shall have an additional bill for extra wear of horses and w'agons, probably increasing the expense one-third, making the total cost $8,000, or a cost of $400 per mile. If the road decreases the load one-half, and you know there are miles of roads where you must either double your time or halve your load, the cost per mile will be one-sixth greater, or 146 G 66. Cost of 3Iaintaining Good Roads. The town of "VValtham, Mass., has good roads, and they are maintained under the contract system. Previous to 1865 her roads cost an average annual expenditure of $66 per mile. In 1868 an extra fall of snow raised the cost to $117 per mile, but in no case does it come anywhere near what we pay for our poor roads. Time does not permit any extended discussion of the economy of good roads, but it is nevertheless a subject worthy your careful consideration. FAKMEES' INSTITUTES. Ill Grades. We will call yonr attention for a few minutes to the subject of grades. Cus- tom allows us no opportunity to use discretion in the location of roads ; we are required to follow the section or quarter section line, whether it goes over hills or across valleys, whether through swamps or over rivers. We can not deny but what this custom leaves our farms in better sliajie, as the lands were originally parceled out and are now generally owned in the form of sections, or halves, quarters, or eighths of sections, but it seems to me in many cases that we follow this custom so closely as to entirely lose sight of the more imj^ortant interest. I know of one instance in Avhieh it is twice as far over a steep hill as it is around its base. Now, if a hill rise only one foot in going 20, the draft of the load will be doubled ; but a rise of 1 in 20 does not make a steep hill, and a rise of 1 in 30 is admissible on a first-class road, so that in such a case the dis- tance and also the draft Avould be doubled. In order to convey the same load without increasing the number of horses, the time of going over the hill would be four times the length of the time required in going around the base on an equally smooth road. But it is generally further around the base than over the hill, though not so much as it seems, for ''the bale of a kettle is no longer when laying down than when standing up," no matter how it appears. But it will generally pay to go around hills, even though the distance be consid- erably greater than over them, for it will be seen that grades increase the draft very fast, and consequently require either a corresponding increase in the power or in the time to pass over them. ISTow, as sooA as the waste of time in passing over a road will pay any sort of interest on the compensation a man should receive for the privilege of running a road through his farm, then without any delay should the road be turned to its natural course around the hill, and the waste of power of ascending saved. Eoads should be perfectly level, but since that is in many cases not only imj)ractical but impossible, the question at once is raised, How steep a grade is admissible? It is claimed l)y many good authorities, and denied by many equally as good, that undulating roads are less tiresome to horses. The following table, taken from Gillespie's Roads and Railroads, shows very clearly the detrimental iniluence of grades, calling a full load on a level, 100 per cent : in 100 a horse can draw 00 per cent. 81 75 " " 54 " " 50 " 1 " 10 " '• 25 The truths of the statements in this table are shown very clearly by the fol- lowing experiment: Loading this miniature wagon and then allowing a descending weight to pull it over this board, which can be set so as to represent all the inclinations referred to by the table, you see when the board is level a very small weight moves the wagon, but if the inclination of the board is On a rise of 1 in 100 ii 1 ii 50 a 1 ii 44 ii 1 ii 40 ii 1 ii 30 ii 1 a 2G a 1 ii 24 ii 1 ii 20 112 STATE BOAED OF AGRICULTURE. increased to 1 in 24 tlie same Aveigbt "will only draw one-half the former load, and if we increase the inclination still more, say to 1 in 10, the weight, as you see, Vv'ill draw only one-quarter of the first load. In round numbers, on a slope of 1 in 44, or 120 feet to the mile, a horse can draw only three-fourths as much as he can on a level ; on a slope of 1 in 24, or 320 feet to the mile, he can draw only half as much ; and on a slope of 1 in 10, or 528 feet to the mile, only one-quarter as much. This ratio will vary some- what with the natural condition of the road bed. As the effect of a nick in a razor that is already in a bad condition is scarcely noticed, so on a road that is already very l^ad a slight increase in the draught is not so perceptible as on a good road, nor is it so large a proportion of the former draught. The loss of power on inclinations is even greater than these considerations show, from the fact that the anatomical construction of a horse does not jiermit him to apply his powers Avith the same advantage as on a level. A horse on a level is as strong as five men ; yet on a steep side hill he is less strong than three, — for three men, carrying eacli 100 pounds, Avill ascend faster than a horse carrying 300 pounds.* Inclinations being always thus injurious, are particularly so where a single steep slojie occurs on a long line of road that is comparatively level. It is in such a case very important to avoid or lessen this slope, since the load carried over the whole road can not be in excess of what can be conveyed up this slope. Thus, if a long slope of 1 in 24 occurs on a level road, a horse can take over it only one-half of his full load, and consequently his load over the entire stretch of level road must be reduced accordingly. This evil is sometimes partially remedied by adding extra horses at the foot of the slope, or more commonly by severely exerting the horses for a few minutes, then allowing them an opportu- nity to rest by blocking or otherwise holding the wheel. Both these methods are jooor economy, and occasion a great waste of time to every vehicle that passes over them ; and in nine cases out of ten, were this waste of time for a single year actually employed in improving the road, the expense of passing over the slope might be entirely obviated, or at least greatly lessened. Expenm of Grades. You saw by the exjjeriment that a slope of 1 in 24 was not very steep, and yet that the motive power was double that required on a level. If such is the case, our load must be decreased one-half, and consequently two trips will be required to carry what could have been conveyed in one, had there been an absence of grades. Should we assume as before a certain number of teams passing each day over a certain length of road, and on account of grades only carrying half loads, the cost per mile will be the same as before, viz., $400, provided we assume the same amount of travel. Since a poor road surface, though level, costs us in time $400 per mile each year, Avhile if hilly it costs an additional S400, making in all $800 for each mile of road, we can well afford to spend some little time in devising methods for permanent road improvement. Different Kinds of Roads. There are various methods of forming a surface for roads; but of these methods there are probably only three that merit any particular attention from the American public. The three kinds of road that I wish to call your atten- tion to, as peculiarly adapted to our country, are the plank road, gravel road, * GiUespie, Roads and Railroads. FAKMEES' INSTITUTES. 113 and the broken stone or macadamized road ; the stone pavement in its various modifications is far too costly for any extensive use as yet. The following table of resistances, taken in part from Gillespie's Eoads and Eailroads, shows verv clearly the comparative value of dilferent materials as road covering for level roads. The table also shows the amount a single horse should draw, deduced as fol- lows : From repeated experiments it has been found that an ordinary horse can exert for 10 hours in a day a steady pull of about 120 pounds : consequentl}-, if the proportional resistance of the draught to the load is known, the load can be found by multiplying the reciprocal of the resistance by 120 : KIND OF SUHFACE. Stone pavement Broken stone on stone pavement Broken stone on flints Broken stone on soil Gravel road Soft sand and gravelly road (ordinary dirt) Propoi-tion of resist- ance to load. Force in pounds re- quired to draw 1 ton. 1-68 30 1-49 40 1-34 58 1-30 GG 1-15 134 1-7 296 Load one horse sho'd draw, tons. 1-29 9-11 8-9 2-5 By referring to the last column it is seen that the power of a horse is 10 times as effective on a stone pavement as on an ordinary dirt road ; and on a gravel road 2 2-9 times as effective as on our ordinary roads. The most important consideration with all these roads is the preparation of a thoroughly drained road-bed. Xo amount of work or expenditure of money in another direction can compensate any deficiency in this. No matter how costly be your road covering, if it is constantly saturated with water your road will be a failure. Draining may be accomplished by a sufficient number of open ditches, or in a more thorough and permanent manner by covered sewers at the side of the road, fed by diagonal under-drains running under the road-bed proper. Flank lioacls. Plank roads are suited only for a heavily timbered country ; at the best they are but temporary affairs, and are the worst roads possible if not kept in the lest of repair. As our country grows older they must of necessity be replaced by roads of more permanent character. Gravel lloads. There is, perhaps, no road covering so well adapted to the wants of the community in general as our coarse, sharp gravel. K^early every neighborhood has a bank of excellent road gravel, and the cost of their road covering need be little more than the expense of hauling, thereby forming aji excellent road at small e.xj^ense. Broken Stone Koad. The best road Ave can command is the broken stone or macadamized road. The method of making in its earlier stages is very similar to that of the gravel road, viz. : by preparing a well drained and neatly graded road bed slightly convex at the center ; to this apply the road metal (which, in this case, consists of angular fragments of stone, not over 1^ inches on any side), in layers of a 15 114 STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. few iuclies in thickness, allowing each layer to harden under the traffic before the next is apiDlied. The thickness of the broken f^tone ehonld vary with the amount of traffic from 8 to 16 inches. Once made, the broken stone road is the cheapest of all roads. It is a road over which a single horse can easily draw nearly two tons against eight-ninths of one ton on a gravel road. Travellers in England have often wondered at the huge load the English horse draws, and have frequently thought that it was due to his superiority to our horse ; but that is not the case, for when put on our roads he is no better than our horses. The true solution is found in the fact that the Englishmen have invested in permanent roads what the Americans have put in perishable horses. Consequently we find the Englishman doing the same amount of work that we do, with one-third the number of horses ; and he says he has made a paying in- vestment, though he has expended an immense amount in his roads. Every fact indicates that good roads pay in money and in comfort, and the time has now arrived when the consideration should be given them that their importance demands. Next in order was Hon. Richard Ferris of Cheshire, who read the following essay on cuttixCt and curixg hay. Having never made chemistry a study, I am somewhat timid in entering upon the subject of the proper time to cut and the best mode to cure hay ; and I frankly confers that I could not have been induced to enter upon a discusion of the subject were it not that doctors supposed to be sound in faith and practice so materially differ in their views regarding this matter. A writer in the agri- cultural department of the patent-office report for 1858 (p. 308) says: *' In the timothy grass, for instance, the culms are found to contain more nutritive matter when the seed is ripe than those of any other species of grass that has been submitted to experiment. The value of the culms simply exceeds tliat of the grass when in flower, in the proportion of 14 to 5. Notwithstanding this, it has been contended that, although there is more nutriment contained in the seed crop of this grass than in the flowering crop, the loss of the after-math, or second crop, which would have been produced during the time the seed was ripening, would more than outweigh the superior quality of nutritive matter contained in the seed crop. But for reasons given * * * the cutting of timothy before the process of desiccation has commenced on its stalks, would prove fatal to a future crop from the same roots.'' Acting, as I supposed, on the best of authority, considering the high source through which it came, the next year I let my timothy stand "till the process of desiccation had com- menced on its stalks ;'' but I never repeated the exijeriment. My hay was not worth half price. The cattle didn't like it, and a large percentage of it passed under them as bedding. The fact is simply this : the succulent and nutritive properties of the grass had nearly all gone to mature the seeds, and to that extent were lost as food, as stock never digest the seed. With regard to the other theory of this learned doctor, that ''the cutting of timothy before the process of dessication has commenced on its stalks would prove fatal to a future crop from the same roots," I will only say that, for the last nineteen years, I have cut, on my farm on which I now live, more or less hay every year ; and v/ith the exception of the year above mentioned I have cut my timothy while in the blow, never allowing it to mature sufficiently for any portion of the seed to shell when the hay was cured. I never cut to exceed three FAEMEES' INSTITUTES. 115 crops of hay from the same piece of land before plowing the sod under. As a rule I plow the meadow land as soon as the June-grass begins to injure the timothy. I will in this connection make another extract from the report of the depart- ment of agriculture for the year 18G7 (p. 299), as it so clearly coincides with and explains my own experience and observations : From what has just been said a practical suggestion may be drawn in respect to the time most proper for cut- ting plants intended for the support of animals, or for medicinal purposes. It is a fact that a plant is in its fullest vigor, and contains the largest quantity of nutritious juices which are laid up in store for the growth of the young seeds, when the flower is in its greatest perfection, and the pollen is fully matured and commences its fertilization. This condition may be known by observing, in the larger flowers, the pollen scattered on the stigmas ; or in the smaller ones, as grasses, by striking the spike or head, when the pollen will appear like yellow dust on the hand. This is the time the plant should l^e cut and stored away for future use. If delayed beyond this, the nutritious elements are abstracted to perfect tlie seeds, and the plant gradually becomes a withered, dry, and tasteless stalk. All the grasses, whether upland or lowland, should be cut at this time, as the increase of the seeds will bear no comparison in value with the loss of the nutritious properties of the stalk and flower. It seems almost cruel to deprive the domestic animals of the SAveet and nutritious new mown hay by failing to ■cut it in season." Redtop is the most productive tame hay that is grown on lowlands, and as fodder for cattle, probably is unsurpassed ; but as the time for cutting, and the process of cutting it, are nearly similar to the process of cutting and curing tim- othy, I shall let it pass without further remarks. Probably clover needs to be harvested with greater care than any other kind of hay. Like all other kinds of hay, it should be cut when in full bloom. If allowed to stand till the heads turn a bi'ownish color, it becomes almost worth- less. The greatest care must be taken in curing it. If allowed to remain too long in the hot sun before it is stirred up, the leaves will curl up and drop off. As soon as it becomes partly wilted it should be thoroughly stirred up, and kept almost continually in motion till it is cocked up. The cock should be made large and very compact. That is the best place to cure clover hay, and it should be allowed to remain in the cock three or four days, till it passes through the process of sweating. When properly cured it makes very valuable fodder. I regard red clover as one of the most valuable crops raised on the farm. Its worth does not consist in its value as fodder ; its large, long roots penetrate nearly every part of the ground to a considerable depth, making the soil on heavy land loose and porous, depositing at the same time one of the most valu- able of manures. I have heard the plan of covering the cocks of clover with pieces of heavy factory one and one-fourth yards square, to shelter them from the dews and rains, highly recommended. It seems as though it might be wor- thy of a trial. The amount of hay cut in the United States and territories in 1870 was 27,316,048 tons. During the present year this crop will quite likely approximate 34,145,060 tons, which, if estimated at six dollars per ton, will amount to the enormous sum of 1204,870,360. Allowing that fifteen per cent of its nutritive value is lost by allowing it to stand too long before it is cut, or by negligence in curing it, or in both, then the loss in this crop alone aggregates $30,730,554. AVould it not appear from this showing that the time has arrived 116 STATE BOAED OF AGEICTJLTUKE. when the attention of the farming community shonld be more particularly called to this very important and interesting branch of agriculture ? To resume, hay should never be cut when it is wet. Keep it nearly continu- ously in motion from the time it is cut till it is snugly put into the cocks ; allow it to sweat well before it is drawn to and mowed away in the barn. By this process you Avill preserve in the greatest perfection all those nutritious elements which make it so valuable as food for animals. DISCUSSION. Mr. Loomis. — Is it desirable to cut two crops of hay from the same piece of ground in one year? Mr. FeiTis. — I suppose you might cut two crops of clover but not of tim- othy. I never cut two crops in one year from the same piece of ground, but usually pasture it. Mr. Shepard. — Do you practice cocking your hay the first day? Mr. Ferris. — Always, for I think hay properly taken care of worth twice as much as that which is exposed to the dew and weather. It is better to put it in cocks the day it is cut, if you have to stir it up on the following day. Mr. Loomis. — What proportion of timothy would you advise? Mr. FexTis. — About two-thirds timothy and one-third clover. I have good grass land. I tliink the same proportion would do well on a light sandy loam. Perhaps about one-half timothy and one-half clover would be a better propor- tion for a sandy soil. If you should soav all clover I don't think you would get any more clover than if you mixed it half timothy. There are certain proper- ties in the soil adapted to one kind of plants, and certain rpialities adapted to other kinds. By sowing clover and timothy together I tliink the yield is mate- rially increased. I consider clover worthless after the heads have turned and the Juice has left the stalk. Mr. Loomis. — Do you practice putting hay in the barn before it is perfectly cured ? Mr. Ferris. — One season I put it in rather damp and had to remove it from one mow to another, and then I took it out and stacked it. S. E. Lewis. — Did you ever cut your timothy after the seed was ripe? Mr. Ferris. — Some years ago I got a i)atent office report, and that advised the ciitting of timothy after it had become ripe. I took the advice, supposing the writer knew more about it than I did, and I found it was not as good as bright wheat straw. The closing essay of this Institute was read by Hon. A. 8. Dyckman of Soutli Ilaven, on THIJsNING FRUIT. It is a pleasure to trace the divine prescience and wisdom in all that affects our welfare here as well as hereafter. These may be seen, in a remarkable instance, in the provision for reproduction of vegetable forms. All possible accidents by fire, flood, storm, and all consiimption and waste enter into account, and all consequent needs are met in the constitution of things. So do we often observe a superabundance which may be regarded, casually, as an evil ; but in which a deeper insight reveals the beneficent liand of the Great Father. To particularize still further we find, which is our present pui'ijose, that our valua- ble fruit-bearing tree? are prone to set a multiplicity of fruit buds — enough to FARMEES- INSTITUTES. 117 run the gauntlet of frosts, blights, mildews, hailstorms, cold snaps, and an iii- ni^merable array of insect-destroyers that beset them on every side, and have enough still remaining for an over-crop. So are these rich bounties of nature assured to us most perfectly. All this is so wisely arranged that it does not pre- clude the necessity of co-operation on our part ; that it does not make us mere idle participants in the-e bounties. "The primal curse softened to a blessing" has its application here in the essential labor of thinning the fruit. A judicious pruning of trees has the effect to thin the fruit very considerably. For various theories on the pruning rpiestion reference may be Imd to the Michigan Pomo- logical Report foi; 1874. But after all there remains usually a large excess of fruit that must be removed by other means. The first inquiry would be, is it necessary or profitable to thin fruit? Mr. George Parmelee, ex-j)resident of the State Pomological Society, when he lived on his fruit place near St. Josej)h, once told me tliat he and one of his careless neighbors sent to the Chicago market each a lot of the same variety of peaches grown from the same stock of trees, with mainly the difference that his (Pannelee's) had been thoroughly thinned ; that his peaches brought twenty shillings per basket, and his neigh- bors, on the same day, in the same market, brought ten shillings per basket. This instance is given to illustrate the general exiierience of those Avho practice thinning. Now, suppose it costs five cents per basket to thin, which would be an outside figure, the increased size and better quality of the fruit would alone be sufficient compensation, to say nothing of the effect upon the health and longevity of the trees, thu-; released of their over-burden ; or of the greater certainty of a full annual crop thereby secured. A percentage of this will per- haps be saved in the reduced cost of picking and marketing, where half the Tuimber will give the some bulk ; i)i-ovided too much time be not lost, so to speak, in admiration of the luscious specimens of fruit that, under this treat- ment, will crown the labors of the year. The time and manner of thinning are important. The time for thinning peaches is immediately after the season of curcnlio catching by the Ransom process, while the peaches are yet small, so as to have advantage of as much of the season of growth as possible ; for the lake shore in this latitude usiTallv from the tenth to the twentieth of June. I have had little experience with other fruits, but may safely say, in reference to apples, thinning should be done while the codling moth-worm is still in the young fruit ; wlicn, l)y selecting the wormy ones, and destroying them with their inhabitants, we would accomplish a not less desirable end in the death of this most annoying and unmitigated pest. Most apples will be improved by thinning, especially v.'here they grow in clusters. Pears may be thinned early and quite expeditiously by leaving but one on each spur, which, where proper pruning has been observed, will leave them thin enougli. But we must recur to the peach, which has been a special study with us, and we do not feel quite authorized to speak of other fruits. In determining the time of thinning, present judgment must be used in view of all the circumstances — as the quan- tity of work to be done, help available to do it, and the advancement of the season. Having made all necessary observations and having the time appoint- ed, at this point comes up the question : in what manner shall the work be done? Since tlie first fruit was unlawfully abstracted from the forbidden tree, the first natural impulse of our humanity is to shie a club into the tree, and so bring down the object of our desires. The not less heathenish practice of shaking the tree, is about as likely as not to bring down those peaches we desire most to leave. As in harvesting, so in thinning, careful hand-picking, with an 118 STATE BOARD OF AGEICULTUEE. ever watchful eye to the proper distribution of fruit through the top of the tree, is at least the only efficient metliod known to us. As we proceed to work with our ladders and stools we discover at once the great convenience of low-headed trees ; and tlie break -neck folly of climbing twenty or thirty feet above the earth for fruit that can be more cheaply raised within reach by a seven-foot ladder. It tries the nerve when one is required to pick from a well-loaded tree where the peaches almost touch each other, until they are separated by spaces of about six inches, to be varied slightly as judgment under the circumstances may dictate. I once asked a St. Joseph fruit-grower how to thin fruit. He replied: "Take a club and knock off all you can see — then pick off three- fourths of what remain," — meaning in metaphor that the thinning should be very thorough. I have given heed to this admonition ever since. Some varie- ties, like the Early Crawford, bear their fruit in clusters, and often require thinning even when there is not a sufficient number set for a full crop. Each individual peach must have full free space for development. Then, if the con- ditions of climate, soil, and culture are favorable, we shall have a jjroduction to delight all eyes — something we would not be ashamed to send to our centennial world's exposition — a fair testimonial of the charms and graces being wrought by the hand of intelligent labor joined to the infinite skill of a Higher Artist, within the lake-bound borders of Michigan. DISCUSSION. Dr. Kedzie. — Suppose you have two trees just of a size and equally loaded with fruit, and you thin one and do not the other, which will bear the great- est weight of fruit? Of course the question of quality is not raised. Mr. Dyckman. — I should think it would depend very much upon the season. If the weather is extremely dry I should think the properly thinned tree would outbear the other ; feut if everything was favorable to growth, the tree not thinned would probably produce the most. Dr. Kedzie. — AVhat would be the effect upon the tree not thinned? Mr. Dyckman. — It takes a peach-tree a long time to get over the effects of having been overburdened. Dr. Kedzie. — Here is a point I want to bring out. A large proportion of the poach is made up of pit, and the formation of the seed of anything is a very exhausting process. The large number of pits on a tree not thinned must bo exceedingly exhausting. There is another strong argument in favor of thinning, and that is the value of a peach croji is not in the pit but it is in the amount of flesh. Prof. Cook. — I noticed in the New York Tribune not long since that by a judicious process of thinning, trees which had only borne biennially could be miwle to bear annually. Mr. Dyckman. — My experience is that peach-trees bear annually when the season is favorable, but there are certain varieties of apple-trees which only bear biennially. Mr. Loomis. — Have you ever practiced cutting back young trees? Mr. Dyckman. — Do you mean the present year's growth? No, sir; I prune entirely by thinning. I never shorten a young or an old tree, but I thin by cutting off the lateral branches. Mr. Loomis. — What is the best time for pruning apple-trees? Mr. Dyckman. — There are a great many opinions about it, but I am inclined to think that tliey sliould be pruned very early in the season, before they Etart to grow in the spring. FAKMERS' INSTITUTES. 119 Mr. Blackmore. — What distance from tlie ground ^vonld you start the head of a peach-tree? Mr. Dvckman. — Not over three feet. %j Mr. Oumniiiig. — When is the best time of year to prune a peach-tree? Mr. Dyckman. — February or March is a good time to prune, after the stormy weather is over. Mr. Warren. — In an apple or peach orchard is it advisable to let any other crop grow upon the ground? Mr. Dyckman. — When the trees are young there is no objection to growing- crops of corn and potatoes, but when tlie orchard is in bearing I sliould put nothing else upon the ground. Corn is a very good crop for young trees. If you leave the stalks standing they keep the snow from drifting away. Mr. Cummings. — I think potatoes are objectionable, because they take up so much potash. I have heard that a crop of potatoes takes up three times the pota-h that a crop of corn does. Dr. Kedzie. — If you have a good crop of potatoes it will take more than three times the potash from the soil that a corn crop would. Peach trees require a large amount of jjotash ; but after all, the injury from a potato crop would depend very much on the nature of the soil. Trees on a clay soil abounding in alkaline silicates would receive less injury than upon a liglit sandy soil. Mr. Loomis. — Is it not true that we lose whole orchards of peach trees by the cultivation of corn? Mr. Dyckman. — I never knew of such a case. Mr. Loomis. — Most j^eople cultivate corn after the first of July, and experi- ence teaches me that no peach tree should be cultivated after that time. I can cite you to an orchard of nearly nine acres where the whole crop of peach trees was killed by the cultivation of corn. Another orchard near this one was saved by not cultivating it. Mr. Dyckman. — How were these two orchards situated? Mr, Loomis. — On high ground. Mr. Dyckman. — Did both have the same kind of exposure? Mr. Loomis. — One was a mile or two nearer the lake than the other. The orchard vrhich was entirely killed was on a clay, or rather gravelly loam, the other was on a sandy, loamy soil. I could not say which orchard was the high- est, as they were some distance apart. Mr. Dyckman. — I think there are a great many circumstances to account for the killing of this orchard beside the cultivation. Mr. Loomis. — Mr. Dyckman and I do not agree in this matter of cultivation any more than we do in the matter of pruning. I believe that the cutting back of a peach-trcG for the first two or three years is essential to its development. The limbs which are cut back are made stronger and stockier, and they are less liable to break down. This plan of cutting back is practiced by the famous Jersey peach-raisers, Mr. Dyckman. — This whole question of pruning can be found in the Pomo- logical Report of 1874. Mr, Loomis has spoken of the Jersey peaches, and that the peach-raisers of that section practice the cutting back system. The people of Cliicago, who are pretty good judges, say they do not raise as good peaches as we do in Michigan, and I think one reason is because they practice a different system of pruning their trees. We usually have a severe drouth about July 1, and I think if you stop cultivation at that time your trees will suffer greatly from the dry weather. Not only that, if you fail to cultivate after July 120 STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE'.- 1, your trees cease to grow about that time, and then along later iii the Eeason when the wet weather comes on, they begin a second growth which is very liable to Avinter kill. But if yon keep the trees growing right along the wood matures and will go through the Avinter all right. Mr. Sailor. — T have been in Mr. Dyckman's orchard, and he has the best one I have ever seen, and he has made it so by his system of cultivation. Mr. Crawford. — My experience is the same as that of Mr. Sailor. I have been in many of the peach orchards on the lake shore, and I tind the best ones are cultivated up to the time they commence to pick the peaches for market. N. W. Lewis. — I have seen late cultivation ruin large trees by continuing the growth so late that the wood did not harden sufliciently to stand the severe weather of two years ago. One of the largest fruit-growers in Douglas had about 3,000 trees ruined in two not very severe seasons by late cultivation. My experience has been this : Two years ago I had a young orchard which I culti- vated up to July 1st, and then sowed it to buckwheat, which I allowed to remain on the ground. An orchard of iive-year-old trees which I cultivated later in the season received much greater injury from the cold weather than did the young orchard. I think Mr. Loomis' theory is partially correct in regard to the heading-in process. It seems to me that iive pounds of fruit on the end of a limb would be a greater burden than ten pounds of fruit nearer the body of the tree. By sowing buckwheat as I have practiced for the past two years tlie ground is protected and the straw becomes manure for the next season's growth. Mr. Dyckman. — How much lov/er was the orchard which was killed than the other one? Mr. Lewis. — Probably ten feet. On the most exposed ground the soil blew off and the trees were killed at the roots. Some of tliese trees blossomed last spring, and I thought they had come through all right and would have a con- siderable many peaches, but after a while they withered and died. They were on a dry, sandy soil. AVherc the roots of the trees were 25 feet lower the tops were badly injured, but I cut them back and they are now in nice condition. Mr. Crawford. — In the eastern part of the State, just on the border of Macomb county, near the Oakland county line, is a rise of land that stands up prominently, above all the country around. It is more exposed to the blasts of winter than any land in that portion of the State, and yet on that very tract of ground stands ii peach orchard which ha^ been there for the past 25 or 30 years, has borne very regularly, and this last summer there was n fair crop of peaches. Mr. Dyckman. —Where all circumstances are equal the high ground is most favorable ; but trees are often killed on high ground where those on lower ground escape, Mr. Cumming. — There is something in what Mr. Dyckman says about trees dying out on the high elevations under certain circumstances. I have observed iu my own and neighbors' orchards, that the trees on the highest and dryest portions of the orchard were killed. The way I account for this is that the dry ground is more severely affected by the frost than where the ground is moist. S. E. Lewis. — My idea is that the elevations are always the safest. In my own experience, I have noticed that where trees were killed on the ridges it was mostly because their roots were exposed. On this light, sandy soil the wind blows"^ the soil away from the roots, leaving them exposed. In regard to the shortening-in process : When I first came here it had many advocates, but of late there are not many to be found in our vicinity. I am inclined to think that when the trees are yoimg they can be shortened in a little with benefit. PAEMERS* llS'STlTUTES. 131 Mr. Anclerton. — I •wouicl like to inquire in regfird to luulehing peacli tree.?, iind al>^o what varieties will stand winter best. Mr. Dyckman. — I think mulching young trees is one of the very best things that can be done. It does not seem necessary for older trees. The Standard Late and Hale's Early arc among the hardy ones. Mr. Phillijis. — At what time do you put this mulching about your trees? Mr. Dyckman. — Soon after planting. Mr. Biackman. — At what age do you plant trees? Mr. Dyckman. — One year from the bud. Older than that I would not like to plant. Mr. Biackman, — Do you think Hale's Earlv a hardier peach than the Craw- ford? Mr. Dyckman. — I did not think so until last winter. At the close of the discussion tlie following resolutions were introduced and unanimously adopted : Whereas, It is our opinion that the exercises of this institute have been couducive to the advaueement of the interests of agriculture and horticulture auiong us, there- fore be it Eesolved, That we unite in requesting the Allegan covmty agricultural society to hold, at least once in each year, an institute similar to this, and we hereby pledge our support to sucli an enterprise ; Resolved, That we tender our hearty thanks to Professors Fairchild, Kedzie, and Cook, and Mr. R. C. Carpenter, of the State Agricultural College, Mr. A. S. Dj'ckman of the State Board of Agriculture, and those others who have furnished us with essays, for the valuable assistance they have rendered in the successful conduct of this meeting. The meeting closed with a few remarks by Gen. B. D. Pritchard. who pro- nounced a kind of valedictory over tlie pleasantest and most profitable meeting - ever held by Allegan county farmers. Its entire success was as pleasing to the faculty of the college as to our own people, and they repeatedly expressed their •■ entire satisfaction, declaring that they had been benefited by information gained from the farmers who read essays or debated tlic points raised. On the other hand the farmers are thankful for the new light tliey received, and were agrec- . ably surprised to find the agricultural college professors not a set of "starched up" book-worms, but quite unpretending and very practical men, their hands without kid gloves, and their minds well stored with the knowledge necessary for their position. Much more favorable views will 'henceforth be entertained ^ of our State school of agricultiu'e, and we will be surprised if in the future Alle- gan county is not more fully represented there. ARMADA FARMERS" INSTITUTE. The Institute at Armada commenced on the evening of January 11th, and •. continued its sessions during the following day and evening. Although the roads in the vicinity were in an exceedingly bad condition, tlie attendance was large, and an enthusiastic interest was manifested throughout the proceedings. The local committee of arrangements had done their Avork perfectly, and all the parties to whom the reading of papers had been assigned were in attendance and prepared to do their part, so that no deviation from the programme was ren- * dered necessary, except what was caused by the absence of Profs. W. J. Beal 16 122 STATE BOAKD OF AGRICULTUEE. and A. B. Gulley. The time assigned to them wa? occupied by Secretary E. G. Baird and Mr. C. W. Garfield. The se5sions of this Institute were ably presided over by Hon, Geo. W. Phillips, member of the State Board of Agriculture. Mr. Pliillips conducted the proceedings strictly according to the programme, adjourning and convening the sessions without any motion of adjournment, and calling up the next order when the time appointed for it had arrived without any motion, thereby devoting the whole time to what was the proper business of the Institute. There were two excellent choirs in attendance, which contributed very materially to the interest of the meetings. TUESDAY EVENING SESSION. After singing and prayer Mr. Phillips made a few opening remarks expressive of his gratification on account of the interest taken in the Institute, and tho pleasure which they all felt in meeting with the representatives of the Agricult- ural College who had come to aid them. He then called upon R. G. Baird, Secretary of the State Board of Agriculture, to address the meeting on "Tho Prospective Benefits of the Centennial Exhibition." This address is given with others following the record of the Institutes. After singing an appropriate piece, Mr. Garfield of the Agricultural College was called upon, who gave an unwritten address on THE APPLE ORCHARD. The address was in substance as follows : The most successful farmers in these days adopt some form of mixed luis- bandi-y as the basis of their operations, and upon this plan the ap23le orchard should occupy no subordinate place in arranging the crops for the farm. It heli^s to make a good living, first, by furnishing the family with a supply of healthy material for food ; second, by supplying a crop which i-; ready of sale, and a valuable source of profit. The usual neglect of the orchard is sufficient excuse for any one interested in fruit culture to strive by words and actions to keep constantly before the people the most approved methods of culture, and management of fruit after it is grown. There are great varieties of soil and climate with which we have to deal, hence the necessity of keeping prominently before the people the most success- ful practices among fruit culturists. One important consideration is often left out of our instruction in fruit-grow- ing, viz. : the way of growing healthy nursery stock, and the most approved methods of propagating young trees. Success in apple orcharding demands of us that we know how the trees are handled in the primary department. It is here that natural tendencies first show themselves, and where the adaptation to habits of growth must begin. For instance, the apple orchardist should know that there are good varieties, like the Red Canada, that to do well in the orchard should not be grafted on the root, but some distance from the ground, on a healthy, vigorous stock. In planting, very few varieties are required to be most succesiful, and these should be chosen from the "iron-clad" varieties, and from stock not above two years old. Trees should be purchased, if possible, at the nursery where they are grown, and the nearer home the better. Those who simply deal in trees are usually unprincipled men. In truth, the terms tree-dealer and liar are getting to be interchangeable ones. FAEMEKS' INSTITUTES. ' 12a A great deal depends upon the preparation of the soil for the trees before they are planted. Drainage and thorougli snb-oiling are necessary except in the lightest soils ; and a fact never to be forgotten is that apple trees reqnire to be fed as well as cattle and sheep to be profitable. In the planting of an orchard the direction of the prevailing winds shonld bo a point of consideration, and the trees shonld be set loaning slightly in that direction. Stakes of considerable size may often be employed for a donble nse. They will serve to tie the tree to, and if driven npon the southwest side, will shiide the body of the tree from the eifect of tlie snn in winter, which does its blistering work about two o'clock in the day. Protection is a matter of paramount importance in tlie selection of a site for an orchard, and in arranging for its health and usefulness afterward. High ground has great advantages, because experience has taught that atmospheric drainage is an important matter to look after as well as drainage of tlie land. Timber belts, planted on the side of the cold winds, are a protection, when they are not too thick, so as to keep the air from moving, in which case danger may be apprehended from late frosts in the spring. Again, a very important item in the matter of jorotection is the one of having some covering for the ground about the trees. In many instances, during the past few years, when so many trees have been ruined by the severity of the cold, others have been saved by a little ccrass or a few weeds scattered throuo-h the orcliard and about their bodies. Pruning, like the training of a child, should be begun at the first, and not neglected for any reason. Then there will never be the necessity of removing large lim})s, which is so suggestive of barbarism. By this method, notliing in the way of a cutting implement, larger tiian a knife, will ever be needed in the orchard. The eye of an eagle after its prey should not be keener than that of the suc- cessful orchardist in looking after the insects of all sorts that delight in the destruction of his hopes. The most approved and latest devised methods are heralded abroad tlirough the agricultural press, and the fruit-grower who looks well to his ]iighest interest will be thoroughly conversant Avith them. By all means plant apple-trees. Plant them for profit, that you may have the wherewithal to use elsewhere; plant them for the conveniences of the table and comfort of the family circle ; plant them for the pleasant associations that are inseparably with the orchard, which is ever remembered by the members of the family as the most cheerful and pleasant accompaniment to the old home. Follov/ing the address a number of inquiries were propounded to Mr. Garfield. The answers elicited an entertaining discussion. A few of the queries and answers are given : Question. — "What time in the year do you recommend for pruning? Answer. — I believe, as already said, in pruning at all times in the year with a knife, and the orchardist should never go through his orchard without lus knife, to remove any branch that is leading wrong. If a neglected orchard is to receive a heavy pruning, my choice of time would be when the sap is in full flow. Ques. — How high would you train the bodies of trees? Ans. — If orchards are cultivated, about five feet ; if managed by mulching and top-dressing, three feet. The former plan I like the best. Ques. — What do you think of the Baldwin apple for Michigan? Ans. — It has proved to be not suflRciently hardy to endure the severity of our Michigan winters. Everywhere we hear complaints of the fearful effects of tho weather upon the Baldwin orchards. 134 STATE BOAED OF AGIilCULTURE. Ques. — You recoinmeudcd a ground protection for tlie trees, and mentioned weeds in that connection. Would you favor allowing weeds to grow promiscu- ously among our trees, thus giving the orchard a slovenly appearance? x\ns. — Yes, rather than not have any surface protection. Cultivation should be suspended by first of August, anyway, so as to give time for the wood to Iiarden for winter. I would advise the sowing of oats or buckwheat or some crop, at the last cultivation, which should remain on the ground as a protection, and also serve to keeji the weeds down. Ques. — Why do you advocate planting two-5'ear-old stock? Ans. — Because at that age the trees do not lose much ground by transplant- ation, and they are in such a form as to leave the management of the head entirely to the orchardist, Avhilc if older trees be purchased the pruning may have been taken in hand by the nurseryman, and tlie head formed at the wrong place. Ques. — How far ai^art would you plant the trees? Ans. — Forty feet each way for ordinary varieties. For small growing sorts, like Peck's Pleasant or AYagener, two rods or even less might answer; but if well grown, Baldwins, Greenings, and Spies will cover the whole space at forty feet, when they come into bearing. The above discussion and music by the choir closed the evening session. WEDNESDAY FOKEXOON. The first thing on the programme for Wednesday morning was a paper by Mr. I/acius Palmerlee of Bruce, on MIXED HUSBANDRY. Mr. Ciiairjian : — With much reluctance I present myself to meet your call for a paper on mixed husbandry. Y^our selection is a poor one, but let us not despise the day of small tilings. Nature builds up great contrasts for our ben- efit. The subject given me is a very broad one in its scientific and practical aspect, and to my gratification has been handled with consummate ability by men, practical, keen in observation, and well versed in the sciences. The great desideratum in mixed farming, or any farming, is keeping the soil in good condition for productiveness. It seems to have become a fixed idea that in handling the subject of mixed husbandry the comparative profits must be given, or the individual fails to handle the suljject as it should be ; but for my part I consider it a beaten track, and what every farmer understands well enough already. According to the present mode of farming, there can be no rule established which will apply universally, owing to the difference in soils -and size of farms. Let every farmer manage his own farm subject to his expe- rience and judgment ; for if there is any better method comes under his -observation than he has been following, he will readily see it. The profits of farming depend upon demand and supply in a great measure, but full as much in judicious management in disposing of the surplus product hy the farmer. The comparative profits of sheep and cows depend very much upon the course the farmer pursues. If I gave my experience, it would be in favor of sheep, — that is, a given number, according to size of farm. On my farm from 80 to 100 can be kept to advantage, and the most clean profit with the ieast labor of any thing onthe farm ; but overstocking the farm with them is disas- trous. I keep but six cows, but keep them for the good living (as milk and FAKMERS' INSTITUTES. 125 butter never comes amiss winter or summer, in the family) more than for the profit, considering the hihor required the whole year round, but they constitute an important branch of mixed husbandry, and cannot be dispensed with. We have a large country to produce from, and our markets are generally tilled ; but when a scarcity occurs in any one branch we are apt to neglect others at our own expense. Success in our calling depends on being posted as to what branch the majority are neglecting. Wheat, corn, and oats can be carried over some- times to good advantage, if the farmer is unincumbered. A few words on the manural question may not be out of place. Formerly there was an idea prevalent at our agricultural department that the farm must be kept in good condition by the compost or forage of the farm exclusively. Clover was of no account whatever. This I learned by interviewing one of the former foremen of the Agriculture farm who lectured in our neighborhood. The state- ment which he made was, he would have enough of compost to do it, if he had to buy forage from his neighbors. The thought struck me at the time, "Rob Peter to pay Paul." I cannot believe that such is the case at the present time. The verdict of every farmer in the State (at least of intelligence) would be against it. The farmer who sows from 40 to 80 acres of wheat, and other crops in proportion, wdll say that all the manure of his farm animally will not dress 20 acres. It is one of the impossibilities to keep the grain farms up without the use of clover. Clover, used for manural purposes, gives us our best specimens of wheat, — that is when we turn it under, and do not remove it and exhaust the soil still more by so doing. The reason is obvious : it carries more potash back to the soil than any compost which we use. Such is the verdict of those who liave taken an analysis of its properties. As to the stock of our country, I would like to see the good qualities of all the thorough breeds, as they are termed, centered in one. True, it would require time to do it, but what a great convenience it would be for the farmer ! Equally as much or more than combining all of the good patent improvements of reapers and mowers in one combined machine for all work. Here I leave you to anticipate all that might be said on this point, for I trust your experience is your school-master. I must proceed, for my time is limited to ten minutes on this exhaustless subject. xVnd here let me turn your attention into another channel : farming or mixed husbandry in a higher sense. The field of mixed husbandry is broad enough not only for the labor of our hands, but the more pleasing and profitable exercise of the mind in learning the principles and operation of the laws of reproduction. We are not content to plow, sow, and reap, and repeat from year to year, and spend a long life in such a course, and regard not the laws of growth, so sublime in their operation, and essential in our calling. We have had our experience and observation in forming grounds for the working out a problem of great value to us, tracing matter from effect to cause. Nature has a multiplicity of forms for our special benefit, and adapted to the law of our minds. She is continually inviting us into her work-house to view the materials which she uses in constructing and reconstructing in variegated forms.. If we understood the nature of those elements, and the laws of their combination,, failure would seldom be written upon our labors. To show how near we arrive at the point in question, we instance one thing that all are familiar with : In grafting we take a slip from the sweet bough tree, and insert it in a stock which produces the most inferior fruit of the apple kind ; but the graft, when it comes to bear, gives us the sweet bough. The 136 STATE BOAED OF AGRICULTUKE. fluids of the tree which received tlie graft are the same, but tlie vv'ood}^ structure of the scion is not the same, for the absorbents take up and combine elements which, coming in contact with the oxygen taken in l)y the leaves, produce the sweet bough still. Farmers, I do not consider there is any danger in our knowing too much, for "Shallow draughts intoxicate the brain; Drinking largely sobers us again.'' What masters or teachers shall we put ourtclves under for instruction in this great work of progress in our calling? I am aware that what is said is directed to an intelligent class of farmers, who^^e experience is more than mine, altliough I have followed it in this State and Territory since 1833 vathout intermission. Looking upon you in this or that light, I judge that your management of the farm is all that it could be, taking into consideration location and circumstances generally. In frugality, domestic economy, good management, and care of domestic affairs, I yield you the award cheerfully. Farmers, I acknowledge that more than half of my life has been spent in forms and the production of forms, by labor mechanically performed, for the profit of the thing in dollars and cents. But youth is past, and reproduction of forms, beautiful as they are when perfect, and however essential for the support of our organic structure, I place less importance to that essential than to the law by which the elements in nature are made to assume form. Let us become better farmers by learning the science of farming, and reap what gold and silver cannot buy. Wheat is considered of the first importance in mixed husbandry, by all farm- ers whose soil is adapted to its growth. The question is often asked (in some localities), What shall we do to arrest the gradual deterioration of soils for raising this, the most prominent cereal? It seems to me this need not be so. There is a cause for it ; let us enquire v;herein it lies. Our new soils produce the most perfect specimens, hence we draw the conclusion that soils, now, possess the required elements for such a result. Is it mismanagement or too much management that causes the deterioration? Forcing the ground is too much management, while injudicious handling is mi-management, in more ways than one. Vv^e may over-task our beast of burden by violating the law of his phys- ical structure, to his utter ruin, and no restorative can make him good. We may render our farms unproductive and almost worthless by exhausting the proper elements for growth. There is a difference between the organic beast and the mineral earth, for time will restore the latter to its normal condition or productiveness. Farmers, you will indulge me in asking a few questions : What element or elements are the most likely to be exhausted from soils naturally adapted for wheat-growing? Is it the nitrates of potash, or any of the alkaline jiroperties? How are they generated, or replaced if volatilized by heat and escape into the atmosphere, or do they return from the atmosphere by absorption? Our expe- rience teaches us that lime is one of the essential minerals in a good wheat soil. Limestone holds a given amount of carbonic acid. In what manner is it disin- tegrated or volatilized for the benefit of the plant? Tho«e of us wlio have seen lime kilns in burning have discovered the gas emitting from the top, and when it ceases to volatilize the stone is sufficiently burned. By heat the carbonate is separated ; then we use it for the benefit of the plant, where the soil is found lacking in this substance. Do the solar rays, acting on this mineral or calca- reous substance, produce the same result? We learn that before it is available FAKMEES' INSTITUTES. 137 for plant food the carbouic acid or fixed air must bo removed before it is made soluble. The volatile alkali, ammonia, that transporting agent, carries up the neces- sary element, the absorbent vessels take it, putting together two distinct prin- ciples, and the result is a something distinct from either, — perhaps the next combination is the product in the kernel of wheat. I give this overly condensed view of one particular thing of the many connected with mixed husbandry, in order to show that it behooves us to act intelligently for more than one con- sideration. My ol)scrvation in rotation of crops I will give, and perhaps some present may have had like experience. A field on the old homestead, noted for its good properties of soil for wheat or any other crop, was seeded to clover. The next season a heavy crop of clover hay was cut. The second growth was remarkably heavy ; left for seed, but it lodged, held green, and was left uncut. The next season it was turned under and planted to corn. Gave the best yield the farm ever produced, — nearly 150 bushels jier acre. The next season was sown to oats ; re.-ult a magnificent one. The same fall sown to wheat ; a very meager yield followed, — say less than half when summer fallowed, and not so good in qiuxlity. You may say that more profit was derived from the corn and oats, in the rotation, than the loss in the wheat. Admit it ; but let me ask you what were the consequences? The course in rotation was too drastic, and it has not recuperated suflBciently in "several years now to give as good a return as formerly. There is such a thing as forcing the ground, and we understand it better than that favored people who were told not to do it. In the end there is a loss. Nature is not precipitate, out-ide of her laws, in restoring, although we may become co-workers with her. Here, again, we see the need of something more than a practical course, — call it scientific. What elements were exhausted in that soil, that it refused to yield as for- merly? Was it alkaline properties, nitrogenous substances, phosphates, or phos- phites? There is a call for our understanding the working agents in nature better than we do. A good mechanic understands the laws of mechanics ; let us understand the science of farming. Whatever branch of mixed farming wo choose to make a specialty of, properly conducted, involves the principles of sci- entific farming, only in a more restricted sense, while mixed husbandry opens a broader page of the book of nature, — gives us variety, — gives us a boundless field for inquiry, always pleasing, not monotonous, but coincides or meets the law of mind. Whatever of a special character vre undertake, something more than observa- tion is now demanded. We may feed our horses, cattle, and swine injudiciously for perfect development, and retrograde is surely written in legible characters upon the structure. And so with the vegetable. In our great liberality we may feed to excess and have a like experience. For example, I have a desire, as many do, to perform something worthy of note ; select a piece of ground, put on thirty or forty loads of manure per acre, give it good cultivation, sow it to wheat. Everything is auspicious ; a luxuriant growth in the fall, opens well in the spring ; at harvest time, straw enough for 60 bushels per acre ; thirty bushels of wheat per acre, quality medium. Counted a success in dollars and cents. Put that wheat to the test by analyzing its properties as compared with perfect specimens, and we would be obliged to write retrograde on the top of success. Evidently there is a deterioration in that wheat, — sufficiently so to preclude its 128 STATE BOARD OF AGUICULTUEE. use for peed. But we have no time for a reasoning process. Perfection is what mnst he sought after in our calhng as in all others. Such wheat is diminished in its germinating or vital forces, and runs out, as we term it. A thorough kiiowledge of the laws of growth enables us to produce a perfect specimen, and that would be a sure cure. Many who are employed in agricultural pursuits build up fortunes ; others, a competence for all their wants. But circumstances alter cases. The farmer who has a farm of three or four hundred acres is accredited as thorough, a good manager, intelligent, because he succeeds. All this may be true, but he has. advantages over one who has 40 or 80 acres, over and above the difference in acres. He can keep from two to three hundred sheep, and cattle in proportion ; can use one-third of his land for crops to good advantage ; the remainder is resting for the plow-share, when in his judgment what is already in use needs to be stocked and rest for future use. Why should he not prosper? If he does not prosper, he has no claims for intelligence, frugality, or good management.. The farmer upon 40 or 80 acres who supports a family, rears and educates them, is worthy of commendation. His resources, comparatively, are small. The danger lies in drawing too heavily from his soil out of necessity. Twenty- five acres to grain out of 80, deducting ten for wood, is all he can use annually, and keep his farm in a proper status or condition. He must be frugal, a good manager in domestic economy, intelligent and self-denying, or he will make a shipwreck of farming. But thousands do it, and we give them the credit they so richly deserve. In concluding what I have to say to you, farmers, the signs of the times are ominous. The interest manifested on this occasion speaks of an uprising, — a turning of our thoughts into channels which lead to the goal of triumph. The farming jjrofession is becoming more popular, as science steps in and develops the vast resources in the storehouse of thought, the promoter of ideal develop- ment. The arts and sciences are hand-in-hand friends. Our profession is an art as well as a science. What is cheering to us is, that professors of a college are inviting us to unite our forces with theirs, both mentally and physically, to bring forth such incalculable benefits for ourselves and the world. They pro- pose to use the means in their power, — superior scientific attainments in connec- tion with a chemical laboratory, — to unlock what is hermetically sealed from our view. It seems like anticipating what is to be in the future and future wants. Let us not bequeatli to our posterity barren lands. It would be a rank injustice. Before another centennial our country will number its 200,000,000 of souls. Then the resoiirces of husbandry will be taxed for home consumption. The science of farming must keep pace with the ratio of increase in order to meet our wants. Some of the cpiestions and answers which followed the reading of this paper were as follows : * Mr. Ingersoll. — What has been your experience in feeding out the products of the farm and employing the manure upon the land? Mr. Palmerlee. — I would confine the spreading of the manure upon one or tAvo fields, Avhere the weeds can be controlled. The rest of the farm should be kept up by green manuring, Mr. Sutherland. — What is your experience with regard to the use of lime in promoting the growth of wheat? * There beinc: no short-hand reporter in attendance at this Institute, the discussions are reportecl very imperfectly, and in some instances not reported JVt aU, FAEMERS' INSTITUTES. 129 Mr. Palmerlee. — Lime and other suljstances, if rendered in soluble form, are good for wlieat. Plaster is a stimulus rather than a manure. Mr. John E. Day of Bruce was next called upon, who read the following- paper : SHEEP vs. cows. — COMPAKATIVE PROFITS. The ultimatum of the skill and enterprise of average humanity is money. Prospective of dollars and cents, or the comforts Avhicli they are supposed to command, furnish the incentive and the oliject of our study and toil. Hence the word profits in our title. In the anticipation of the genesis of any new enterprise, the first question which meets the enquirer is, "Will it pay?" and when two branches of industry are brought into comparison, the same question assumes a difference only in form — "Which pays the best?" But notwithstanding this, individual taste and preference have much to do with individual skill in any vocation. The man who would willingly walk a mile to kick a sheep will succeed but slowly in the trade of sheep-husbandry, and the man Avho can see no beauty or comeliness in the well rounded form and quiet look of the Avcll-bred cow, will never make a successful dairyman. In my remarks upon this subject I shall not deal with excejitional cases, but with the average profits of our average farmers. I have in mind at present more than one sheep-raiser who has established a reputation upon long years' practice as a careful and successful breeder and keeper of sheep, who, under present circumstances, would exhibit the height of folly to even anticipate any change ; and so, on the other hand, the farmer who has made the breeding of cattle a study for years had better maintain the even tenor of his way, unheed- ing aught of change. But these are exceptions. The rank and file of Our agricultural army are ready to take up that branch of industry which seems to pay the best for the time, and to stop it when such ceases to be the case. We welcome change perhaps a little too Avarmly. Two aspects of the subject before us have set the public mind to thinking upon the question of comparative profits of them more intently than usual, especially in our locality. First, the dulness of the market for hea\'y wools the past season has dampened the ardor of many an enthusiastic wool-grower, and led him to conclude that if this is to be yearly repeated some other branch of agriculture must be taken in its place. Second, that our farms are in need of more manure than is accorded by the present system of sheep-raising. The attention of our members of clubs and granges has been abeady called to these features of the subject, and so will be better prepared to contemplate them now. Theory tells us that domestic animals require one-fiftieth part of their own weight in good hay or its equivalent each day in winter ; and this is undoubt- edly as nearly correct as any rigid rule can be. It will not suit all eases. The average of cows in avoirdupois is about 850 pounds?, and that of sheep 85. On the above theory, ten sheep will equal one cow in cost of keeping. Yet our most practical farmers say that eight sheep will consume as much per day as a cow in winter, and more Avhile at pasture. I shall assume a medium estimate in my comparison, or in other words eleven cows shall bo made to balance one hundred ordinary sheep. And just here, let me remark, occurs the difficulty in making a comparison between any two branches of agriculture, — our practices differ so widely, and we each draw our conclusions from our own stand point, and base our estimates upon the results of our own practices. One farmer loves his cows neither too wisely nor too well, but bestows upon them more care and ex- 17 130 STATE BOAKD OF AGRICULTUKE. pense tliau -iipon liis slieep, and it is uot surprising that they should yield the best returns. Another bestows his care and labor upon his sheep, and neglects his cows, and the meagre supply of milk, and the leanness of his larder, convinces him that the royal road to fortune lies in his flocks. The best we can do is to keeji y/ithin the range of the old standard that thirty pounds of flesh requires one pound of good hay, or its equivalent each day, varying somewhat accord- ing to the class of animals under consideration and surrounding circumstances. Upon the basis of eleven cows to one hundred sheep, let us now proceed with our estimates. One hundred sheep cost, as to original investment, $250. They will average six pounds per head at forty cents — $240. The increase will be thirty lambs at $2.50 per head — $75 plus $240 equal $315. Deduct from this shearing and marketing $20, for tagging and washing $10, use of ram $5, equals $35, minus $315 equals $280 income of the flock. Eleven cows cost, as to original investment, $440 or $190 more than the sheep. The average yield of milk per day through the cheese-making season just past, has been about twenty-two pounds per cow. The season has been a very poor one, both in pasturage and in the manner in which our farmers have been prepared to meet it. Twenty-five pounds per day is a fair estimate. The yield of the cows per day would be 275 lbs., worth at the factory $2.75. The usual length of the season for cheese is 150 days, which multiplied by 275 equals $412.50. At the close of the cheese-making season, the milk may be turned to the manufacture of butter. They will give ten pounds per head for 150 days — equals 16,500 lbs. of milk. Allowing twenty-five pounds of milk to one of butter would give us 660 pounds at 25 cts. per pound, $165. Again, eleven calves we may value at $30 and offset the buttermilk against the labor of churning and caring for the butter. $412.50 plus $165 plus $30 equals $607.50. Deduct from this for extra work milking $50, for cartage of milk $25, services of bull $25, for interest on the difference in first investment 819, equals in all $119, less $607.50 equals $488.50 or $208.50 in favor of the cows. EECAPITULATIOlf. Sheep. Ck. By 600 pounds wool, 40 cts. per lb $240 00 By 30 lambs, at $2.50 each 75 00 Total $315 00 Dk. To cost of shearing $20 00 Tagging, washing and use of ram 15 00 Total " $35 00 $280 00 Cows. Ce. By milk for cheese making $412 50 By milk for butter. 165 00 By cash for calves 30 00 Total $607 50 FARMERS' INSTITUTES. ' 131 Dk. To extra cost milking 850 00 To costage of milk . 25 00 To service of bull 25 00 Interest on difference in cost 19 00 Total $119 00 Profits on eleven cows $488 50 Profits on sheep - - - 280 00 In favor of cows $208 50 I have in the commencement of this article adverted to the subject of manure. Let us revert to it again. One hundred sheep, with ordinary care, will produce forty loads of manure. Eleven cows, stabled and bedded will produce eighty loads of equal value, if the cows are fed a little meal, and the manure piled under shelter. Although difficult to place a money value upon this eighty loads above the former forty loads, yet it is a consideration worthy of careful atten- tion. In the older portion of our country, many farms are composed entirely of tillable land. In many of these fields the virgin soil is exhausted, and these which we depended upon in years past have disappointed iis, and we feel that we must by some means renovate them. Of course other means may be em- ployed, as by clover, or the fattening of cattle, or the u?e of foreign fertilizers. I refer to it only as a difference between sheep and cows. 1. Abortion and failure to be ia milk, objections to the production of milk. In nearly all herds of eleven cows from two to five, are, in spite of the utmost care on the part of the herdsman, farrow. If these are cows of ordinary or inferior value, they may be readily fattened and their place made good or more than good. But it often happens that they are the most choice cows of the herd, and rather than part with them the farmer prefers to suffer the loss. Let us suppose the average loss from this source be three cows, the actual loss hi milk would be equal to about two-elevenths of the income of the herd or $110.44. This is a loss which has always been felt in times past, and will certainly be felt in time to come to a greater or less extent. Let no one go into this business thinking to avoid it. Second objection. Trouble of milking. This, to many a farmer, is the "lion in the way" of dairying. Few of us have any surplus lielji available, and the morning milking has to be done by men who would otherwise be at the plow or other important farm work ; and at night, long before sunset, the farmer himself, or the man, has to hasten home to milk the cows. The morning hour must be taken from the farm work, or else from the farmer's sleej:), and we all know how dear to the weary frame is a little more folding of the hands to sleep in the cool of a summer's morning, and how reluctantly we leave the couch and seek the yard ; and then we dread the thoughts of an hour's exercise at milking after a hard day's work at the plow or in the harvest field. And then, perhaps one or two in the herd are restive and shy, and now and then extend the hinder hoof with a yank, and hinder the exercise of the caudel extremity with more than ordinary emphasis. Flies are thick, and gnats and mosquitoes are bloodthirsty. Again, one or more of the cows have been reasoned with by a former owner with such arguments as the stool, or clubs and bits of 132 STATE BOAED OF AGEICULTUKE. rails, and need the constant presence of more patience than most of us possess, especially in fl3^-time. This is aggravating to the average Imman mind, and when, as often happens, it results in an overturned pail, and tlie consequent loss of pounds of milk -^vhich represent prospective dollars of income, it has a jorac- tice bearing which reaches not only the mind, but also the wallet. And often- times "the boys" to whom the milking is entrusted have an evening party on the tapis, and so milk the cows about an hour earlier at night, so as "to get ready," and in the morning, long after the usual time of milking, with eyes not yet half open, and in a fretful humor, they proceed to the yard to find the cows with their udders swollen and painful and as impatient as tiie boys. "The signs" are right for trouble. The milkers grumble like the mutterings of dis- tant thunder, and upon the slightest motion of tlie cows the storm comes on, and is often such a one as leaves its effects for the rest of the season. Most of us dread the thought of milking in winter. If cows arc imperfectly stabled and poorly littered in the stalls, this is indeed a serious matter. With cold feet, and filth frozen thick to the animal's skin, the task is far from a pleasant one. But on the other hand, if the stable is a sufficient one and a good supply of bedding supplied, tlie matter jwesents a different aspect. Dairymen must remember that milking is a part of the farm work, and should be per- formed m the hours allotted to labor, and not after the farm work is done. Those who expect to have the milking done by hired men after a long day's work in the field, will not be likely to have it well performed, nor yet with a very good grace. Cross milkers make stubborn and ugly cows, while they diminish the yield of the milk. I am aware that in some families this work is performed by the female portion of the household. If circumstances favor it and the women are "udlling, this arrangement may be entered into in the summer season to the manifest advantage of the cows. But it is not practicable in the cold and snow of winter, and even in summer the women have as much hard work and longer days than the men upon our farms. I can ajipreciate the helpfulness of those women in most of our households who, in the stress of work occasioned by an approaching storm or some mishap, "will cheerfully do the milking, and thus relieve those upon whom the stress has come. But I have no sympathy with the man who adopts this branch of enterprise because lie can get so much more work out of his "women folks." This motive is ignoble, and ho deserves to be disappointed. Again, many of our households are poorly prepared to take the addition to its daily labor of the manufacturing of 300 to 600 pounds of butter, neither are our pantry room and our butter appliances sufficient for it. Third objection. Trouble of cartage of milk. This burden is usually borne by four to five neighboring farmers, who either alternate in the "svork or join in paying a man who makes this his business. In either case the expense is in proportion to the distance from the factory, the character of the roads, and other local considerations. He Avho is the most favorably situated in respect to the factory vail of course deduct from his expenses a proper amount. Fourth. ISTegligence in care is also a serious drawback to the enterprise. There is perhaps no branch of farm enterprise upon which the want of con- stant care shows so quickly, and with disastrous effect, as that under considera- tion. Irregularity in milking, feeding, insufficient or improper food, a scant supply of water or that of an impure character, are causes which lessen very materially the income of the dairyman. It will not do to enter the cheese making season, depending solely upon the pasture to keep up the yield of milk, but as the dry and parched days of the late summer, or the frosts of early FAKMEES' INSTITUTES. 133 autninn come on, additional feed in some form mnst be giA'en. Tiie ride to the village or the call npon a friend in the early evening must be given up till after milking. Sunshine and storm, the same work is to be performed at the same time each day. Cost of fencing is also greater than for the keeping of sheep, and we may add to this fact that it oft occurs that one or more in the herd has but little regard for the works of man in this direction, and often leads the entire herd into mischief, Avhich the value of many milkings will hardly make good. Additional expense of stabling room is also required. To many this is a matter of little moment, as they have buildings readily adapted to either cows or sheep, but to otliers the keeping of cows involves an outlay of greater or less extent in stables. I mention these as items to which attention must be given before we decide the question which pays the best. I have spoken of cheese-making only in connection with the factory system. If it is to be undertaken as a private enterprise and made up at home, the cost of cart- age is obviated and the whey is retained home, to the evident betterment of the swine upon the farm. Mr. Nims, of the township of Washington told me not long since that his dairy of fourteen cows yielded him ^800 gross, above what was consumed in his family. Again, which is likely to be the most permanent employment? Are Ave not more likely to overstock the market with dairy products than with wool? Does either commodity depend for its market upon a local trade? All branches of honorable industry, like water, seek the level, and in the long run that busi- ness pays the best for which an individual's surrounding circumstances and his tastes seem to be the best adapted. We are too apt to rush to extremes. In our haste to be rich we lose sight of some of our most important influences. You who have read Victor Hugo's book, "Ninety-Six," Avill remember what a vivid description he gave of a cannon, Avhich has broken loose from its fastenings upou the deck of a war-ship, and rushes with a frightful momentum this Avay and that, as the ship is naoved by the Avavos, earning destruction and death in CA'cry lurch. Such Avould be the effect upon agricultural commerce, if Ave all rushed blindly at Avhatever seems at the time to pay the best, only to change in another direction as each ncAV fancy might direct. The interests of the com- munity demand that all branches of agriculture for AA'hich our locality is adapted shall be fostered and developed alike. Present or prospective dollars and cents must not be the only consideration in the choice of our occupation. AVill this or that occupation take up the time Avhich might be given to "calm contemplation and poetic ease," of Avhich our farmers know so little. Will this or that add most to the Avelf arc and comfort of our families, as the comforts and refinement of home? " Sheep-raising has had its ups and downs, like every other business, but it is a question if any business has paid better for a series of years. The rapid increase of sheep is favorable to farmers of small means avIio Avisli to engage in wool- raising. Sheep-raising is too much neglected in many localities. The animal Avhicli furnishes clothing, fuel, and lights for the Avorld is entitled to more credit than it receiA'Cs." It may be argued that other countries of perpetual A'egeta- tion or of milder interest can furnish us Avith avooI cheajoer than aa'C can raise it. The same may be said of coavs. Texas has been producing both avooI and beef for our market for years, and yet our aa'ooI and beef commands a paying price. I liaA'e not spoken of the long or combing aa'ooIs, nor yet of the distinctiA'ely mutton breeds of sheep. Perhaps more profit can be obtained from these than 134 STATE BOAKD OF AGRICULTUEE. the fine wools or tlieir grades. If so, let their advocates who are here to-day proclaim it. And now, thankhig you for your patience in listening to me, I am disposed to end this article with the same idea with which I commenced it, viz. : Which pays the best? trusting that men of experience and success in other branches of industry here present will develop the matter more fully &nd with more intel- ligence than I have done. Mr. John A. Paton of Armada was next called upon, who read the following paper on the APPLICATION OF MANURE. I will not speak at this time of tlic different fertilizers we usually have to buy, but of our common barnyard manure, of which we all have, or ought to have^ plenty. In the first place ^xe must liave our manure pile sufficiently rotten, and in the right condition to give nourisliment to tlie young plants we expect to grow on the soil, or we need not apply it at all. If your manure joile is one-third straw and one-third cornstalks and cobs, you had better rick it over, and leave it in the yard until it rots, being careful to have it in such a shape that the heavy rains will not leach it. The usual time of applying manure is in the spring for corn and potatoes, and in the summer and fall for fall wheat. For corn and potatoes I would advise spreading the manure and then ploughing it under (but never tlirow in ])iles and leave any length of time). The cultivation of the young plants will bring the manure near enough to the surface. For fall wheat I would advise top-dressing by all means, whether summer fallow or stub- ble ground. Always plough the ground the last time before applying the manure if you want the Avheat croji to get the benefit of it. After tlie ground has been plouglied the last time apply the manure, spreading it evenly over the surface, and then harrow it in. I think fall the best time to apply manure, and that it should always be spread, — never left in piles to leach with the rains. I would apply manure after ploughing, before harrowing, for all crops, whether fall or spring, except for corn, potatoes, and root crops. But some will say, If you apply the manure on the surface after ploughing, the sun and wind -will absorb the moisture and dry it up, rendering it useless. To sucli I would say, that manure will not dry out as fast as the natural soil, but on the other hand it will retain the moisture and keep the young plants growing. Of course, if you are going to spread straw on the groimd, you had better plough it under to keep it from blo^ving away, for the only plant food there is in it until after it has decayed is what little liquid it has absorbed while in tlie yard. tSome people draw the most of their manure out in tlie -winter. If it is fit to draw (that is if it is sufficiently mixed and rotted), I think it is a good plan to draw it in the winter, when other farm work is not pressing, and it can be done without extra hired lielp ; but it should always be spread, — never left in piles on the ground. As a general rule, how- ever, the manure and straw that accumulate in the yard in winter should be mixed and rotted in the yard during the early part of summer, and drawn upon the land after haiwest. Sometimes coarse, strawy manure can be applied to a stiff clay soil to advantage, but as a general rule, the finer and more rotten it is Avhen ajiplied to tlie soil, the sooner we receive the benefit therefrom. FAEMEKS' INSTITUTES. 135 AFTERNOOX SESSION. The exercises in the afternoon commenced with a paper by Mr. C. L. Inger- soll of the Agricultnral College. Subject, "What Stock Shall We Keep?" See lectures given at the close of this record of the mstitutes. After an interesting discussion which followed the reading of Mr. Ingersoll's paper, Kobert McKay, Esq., of Bruce, was called upon, Avho gave an unwritten address. Subject, ''The Farmer's Road to Success." "We are sorry that we have not been able to induce Mr. McKay to write out his address for this re- port, as the theme was an eminently practical one, handled in a thoroughly practical and masterly way, by one of the most successful farmers of our State. The line of thought presented by Mr. McKay was substantially as follows : He said : First, That the farmer must have a love for his vocation. Many he said took to farming because there seemed to be nothing else open to them, but having no love for their vocation they were restive in it and rarely if ever succeeded. Second, There must be mental and physical adaptation for farm- ing. Third, Many fail because they attempt to grasp too much. Many a man might keep a country store successfully who could not fill the place of A. T. Stewart, so many a man might succeed on forty acres who fails on three or four hundred acre^. Fourth, In farming, as in other things, intelligent labor is essential to success.- Tlie speaker, in a very interesting manner, referred to the many advantages which young men had in this country, and to the grand opportunities before them. With industiy and economy there was no reason why they should not become wealthy. For his own part he would not bo afraid to start out a young man poor, and be w'orth a hundred thousand dollars before his hair turned gray. We understand that this is about what Mr. McKay has done, and no doubt with his youth renewed he could do it again. Mr. Thomas Uawson of Memphis was next called up, who read the following paper on INCREASING THE FERTILITY OF OUR FARMS. If I were asked to tell how little I know of farming, and of the best and most certain treatment of the soil to increase its fertility, I might make some showing, for I have truly and repeatedly said that we only grope our way along, for in the management of our farms we apply one fertilizer and then another, and wait and watch for the result, and if successful on one soil we repeat the trial on another, and again wait and watch, and find quite a different result : and we are led to ask, is there no certain management with certain results, or has the system of farm tillage no fixed or defined laws? If this were true we might presume that the Allwise Being, in his grand providence, had overlooked one of the most important provisions for the production of creature comforts, but we are not disposed to excuse our ignorance by findmg fault with him who has done all things well. There is a means by which we can determine as surely the character of the various soils as productive or otherwise, which is as certain as the rules of the physician to prescribe the proper remedy for disease. By a proper knowledge of agricultural chemistry, soil can be analyzed, and the various properties, and their quantities can be determined, and by experiment and observation our learned agriculturists have found out the proportion of elements which constitute fruitful soils, and are enabled to direct us in supply- ing the needful element ; but I am no chemist, and must stop here, contenting 136 STATE BOARD OF AGEICULTUEE. myself "with telling only what my limited experience and observation has learned me. We farmers know tliat there are varions other means necessary to produce an increase of fertility of our lands, besides the application of fer- tilizers, such as full and complete drainage, either by underdraius or surface drainage, and a freer use of the plow, cultivator and harrows in mixing and mellowing the soil, and leaving it in proper order for the reception of the seed ; and next in order is to get good seed, and to sow it a proper depth, for it is as great a mistake to cover it too deeply as too shallow ; and I would add that in the use of those fertilizers, which we have found most convenient to obtain and to use m our locality, the barnyard manure is most important, and its applica- tion is never a mistake. Make the heap as big as possible and put it on the poorest lands, and give a top dressing as often as you can afford it of such green crops as clover, oats or buckwheat, and be as liberal in the use of plaster, ashes and salt as your judgment may dictate to you ; and whatever you find will promote a greater growth of crop, use it. I will tell you one of my first lessons in farming which has always held good, and is as true now as when I learned it. I was hesitating in the use of plaster, having been advised that it impoverished the soil, and I referred it to an old farmer friend of mine, who answered : " If you grow nothing you have nothing to put on your land, and your land Anil get poor, but if you can grow something, and you put that some- thing on your land, it will get rich." And I have found it true in every instance, and I make it a standing rule to use any means in my power to get the biggest crops, and the biggest mannure heap, and return it to my poorest fields as fast as I can, and I am then contented to leave the result to a good provi- dence, who has promised a reward for diligence and industiy. WEDNESDAY EVENING. The closing session of the Institute was devoted to an address by T. C. Abbot, President of the Agricultural College, subject, "Industrial Education," and the reading, by Mr. C. F. Garfield, of Prof. J. AV. Beal's lecture on "Grasses and Forage Plants." Both of these lectures are given following this record of the Institutes. The exercises during both evenings were interspersed with music. The attend- ance was large — extra seats were placed in the aisles and every available corner of the house. At all the sessions many of the farmers took a lively interest in the discussions, and at its close all who had been in attendance expressed themselves as highly pleased with the Institute and its results. DECATUR. The Institute held at Decatur, Van Buren County, commenced on the eve- ning of January loth, and continued its sessions during the following day and evening. The attendance Avas large. The town hall in which the sessions were held was crowded, and in the evening many were unable to obtain seats. Among the audience were many of the representative farmers both of Cass and Van Buren counties. FAKMEES" INSTITUTES. 137 Here, as at Allegau, Armada, and in fact at most of the places Avliere Insti- tutes were held, the local committee had done their work so thoroughly as to secure a wide-sjiread and enthusiastic interest, and a highl}- profitable time. The High School choir furnished excellent music, which added greatly to the interest of the evening sessions. The same representatives of the State Agri- cultural College attended this Institute as did that at Allegan. The sessions were ably presided over by Eepresentativc A. B. Co2)ley, who delivered the followhig OPENIXG ADDRESS. Ladies and Gextlemex : — Some time in August last the State Board of Agriculture made arrangements to hold a series of six Farmers' Institutes, one of which was to be held at Decatur January 13 and 14, 1870. At a meeting called for that purpose, December 15th, 1875, in this place, the published order of exercises recommended for adoption by this meeting was made out, and if there Idc no objections it will be considered as accepted by the Institute. This Institute is one of the first held by the professors of the State Agricult- ural College. The college Avas established by an act of the Legislature of 1855, and was placed under the care of the State Board of Education at first, and so remained until, by an act of the Legislature of 1861 the college was reorganized and a State Board of Agriculture created, under whose management the college has been to the present time. Winter meetings of the State Agricultural Soci- ety have been held several years at the tinie of the executive committee meeting, of a similar character to this, Vihich were very interesting. The Illinois Indus- trial College held meetings in that State last vrinter of like nature, which must have been very instructive, judging from the published programme. The State Board of Agriculture of Massachusetts have held annual meetings for twenty- four years, lasting three to four days, the published proceedings of which fill quite a volume, and are a valuable acquisition to any farmer's library. These meetings are held in many other States, being largely attended by the enterprising farmers within reach, with beneficial results generally. The objects of the founders of the Agricultural College were to teach scien- tific agriculture, theoretically and practically. Also, to test different kinds of stock, grains, fruits, grasses, and vegetables ; different modes of treatment, management, and culture ; develop new theories, and confirm or explode old ones ; thus proving by actual practice what had been theoretically taught in the class-room. By receiving reports and essays from some of the most successful farmers of this and other States, the college became the repository of the most approved systems of farming, which, through its annual reports, were widely disseminated back again to the masses. Valuable as these results have been thus far, the State Board of Agriculture and college faculty aim to do better. As students to the Agricultural College, but few could have the advantages of its teachings, while but comparatively a small minority of the 116,300 farmers of this State could have reports to read. Some system was needed whereby the theories of science could be propounded to actual workers of the soil, illustrations shown, explanations given, objections answered, improvements suggested, — in short, a general criticism of the various subjects presented for the consideration of the Institute. Thus, while imparting information, not unfrequently Avould the benefits be mutual. In this spirit it is to be hoped this Institute will be conducted, so that at its 18 138 STATE BOAKD OF AGKICULTUKE. close there will be no regrets except for its limited time of sitting, and that in the near fnturo the seed here planted will yield "an hundred fold," and bear ample testimony to the wisdom of tlie Board in choosing this locality for one of the Institutes. I doubt if there is any one place within the limits of our broad State, diversi- fied as it is in soil, climate, surface, and advantages, where so many of the improvements suggested for the benefit of agriculture could be appreciated, and demonstrated by actual practice, as in Van Buren County ; no county j^ossessing a greater variety of soil, a larger capacity of production, or more extensive range of products ; its soil varying from prairie, timber, openings, marsh, containing loam, clay, gravel, sand, muck, and combinations of either in many cases, ren- der it a fit region for the jjractice of improved agriculture in all its endless vari- ations. Situated in the veiy heart of the fruit belt, as our premiums, taken in a warmly contested State contest, conclusively show, not so near the head of Lake Michigan as to take the cold southwest winds without being tempered by the water, nor yet so far nortli as to be exposed to extreme cold from a high latitude, Van Buren county may justly, and Avithout fear of contradiction, claim to have advantages not excelled by any of her sister counties. Possessing that rare combination of soils, timber, lakelets, surface, and protection that so eminently fit it for the production of whiter wheat in perfection, is it any wonder that wherever Michigan wheat is known our own Keeler Avheat is anxiously sought for, the better quality giving us better prices and more competition than our less fortunate neighbors? With a lake coast on our western border, giving our citizens, in addition to the protection afforded to the fruit interest, unusual facilities for water transportation of our surplus products, we have abided to our other resources four railroads, which give us easy access to markets at all seasons of tlie year, to say nothing of projected roads, enjoyed prospectively without cost. That we have improved our opportunities, the statistics of the Michigan Central Railroad show. For the year ending May 31st, 1875, there Avere shipped 7,435 tons of freight from Lawton, and 9,767 tons from Decatur, not including 1,011 tons from White Oak and Mattawan, — 18,213 tons total, — this station shipping- more than any other between Kalamazoo and Niles. Favored as we are by the natural advantages of soil, climate, timber, location, together witli our commer- cial facilities, it seems as if the one thing lacking to perfect our condition was the skill to avail ourselves of the rare natural resources a kind Providence has placed in our pathway. For that knowledge which will assist us in overcoming our numeroiis insect enemies, draining our swamps and making available the rich deposits of muck therein, properly understanding the mechanical jn'inciples of farm machmery, and rightly educating our sons and daughters, we look to you, gentlemen Pro- fessors of the Agricultural College ; and in behalf of the citizens of this village and of the farmers of the surrounding country, I bid you a cordial welcome. We hope, and shall try, to make your short visit here as pleasant to you as we know it will be profitable to us. The importance of agricultural development to a community situated like ours can hardly be over-estimated. Nearly one-half the population in the State, and a much larger proportion in tliis locality are wholly dependent on agri- culture, and the remainder are more or less directly interested. Our surplus farm products furnisli nine-tentlis of tlie money that pays for productions imported from other States and countries, and our farming population furnish over one-half of the consumers. Ask a commercial man what tlie prospects are FARMERS' INSTITUTES. 139 for business, and he will refer at once to the latest crop reports, — knowing full well that good crops furnish the money to buy from the wholesaler, and the ability to purchase from the retailer. Said Daniel Webster (and he never uttered a truer saying), "Agriculture feeds us. To a great extent it clothes us. Without it Are could not have manufactures, Ave should not have commerce. They all stand together, but they stand like pillars in" a cluster, the largest in the center; and that largest is agriculture." The science of agriculture is but in its infancy. Poorly as it is understood to-day, the average farmer of forty years ago would be Avholly incompetent to take the place of the successful agri- culturist of the present time. The shovel plow, bar-shear bull-plow, uigger hoe, and hand sickle, and the tramping-fioor of Egyptian origin, have given way to steel ploAVS of endless variety, cultivators, reapers, mowers, steam thresh- ing machines, and many others, too numerous to mention. More than manufacturers, ayIio count cost of material, labor, transportation, and commissions accurately beforehand, the farmer has to take into the account other contingencies, as frosts, insects, drouths, floods, blights, and storms, before he can even approximate the probable profits of his crops. More than the merchant, whose customers are within a radius of a few miles, whose wants are known and supplied from week to week without failure or loss, compara- tively. The farmer's customers are the whole world nearly ; not only his custom- ers, but his rivals also. The Avheat-groAvers of Russia, England, France, Egypt, Australia, California, and many other countries are raising grain in direct com- petition with each other, and the value of their grain is fixed by the same law, that of supply and demand. The Avool-growers of Australia, South America, Mexico, the European countries, and our own, all grow avooI for the world's market, and the price depends on the amount of old stock on hand, the amount of the new clip, and the probable Avants of the world. These three factors enter into an intelligent understanding of any kind of manufacturing, and as they are studied or neglected, in that proportion does the enterprise prove a failure or success. Farmers are manufacturers of the various kinds of grain, meats, wool, and other A'egetable productions, and are gOA'erned by the same laAvs. If it is important for a manufacturer or merchant to study in detail everything apper- taining to his business in order to be successful, it is equally so for the farmer, and much more difficult, for his customers and his rivals in business are scat- tered throughout the Avide Avorld. If it is important for merchants and tradesmen to knoAV what they are receiving for their business and what they are expending, it is equally important for a farmer to knoAV where his money comes from, and for what purpose it is expended. Unless a farmer does this, he cannot tell whether his business is prosperous as it should be or not. Some of his crops may be \'ery profitable, and others raised at a loss continually. An eminent writer says that nine-tenths of the failures in business occur from not keeping proper accounts. They do not knoAV their own business, neither do the public who deal Avith them. If it is important for a merchant to deal honorably, uprightly, and Avith strict integrity, it is equally so for a farmer to fulfill aU of his appointments and engagements. Let us, then, striA'e together to elevate our God-given calling. Surely, Avhere so much remains to be done, Ave can accomplish much in the future, judging from the vast strides made in our profession in the past. The time is propitious ; it is the beginning of the year ; the time for good resolves. It is the first of the College series of Institutes. It is the centennial year, — the dawning of a new century in our history ; a marked epoch in our national exist- 140 STATE BOARD OF AGEICULTUEE. ence. May this Institute mark a new era in our agricultural i:)rogre3s ; an era in which, science and practice shall go hand in hand, bearing a harvest of rich results. The remainder of the evening session was occuj^ied by Prof. A. J. Cook, who gave his lecture on ''The Three Worst Insects of the Farm," followed by an interesting discussion. (This lecture and discussion, with others, is given fol- lowing this record of the Institutes.) FEIDAY MORNIXG. The morning session was opened by Mr. J, E. Hendryx, who gave the follow- ing address on BOOT CROPS. The most important crop that can be raised by the farmers of Western Mich- igan is the root crop ; and its great worth is doubly appreciated in seasons like the two past, when there Avas a great scarcity of hay. For many years I have grown, annually, a crop of yellow Swedish turnips, or ruta-bagas, and I have never failed of raising a very fine crop. Of course some years are more favor- able than others for their growth, still very much depends upon the kind of land upon which your crop is raised. When I say it is the most important crop I grow, I mean that it is the best crop for the amount of labor expended. In raising a crop of ruta-bagas, I insist there is but one sure Avay to do it. If the weather and season and everything else is auspicious, anybody can raise a good crop ; but by following the directions which I propose to give here, yoii can have a good crop any season. I am going to raise a good root crop the coming season whether it is wet or dry, cold or hot. I never have failed, and if any of you will come to our place next season I will show you exactly what I tell you I am going to do. The grand secret in growing any crop is in properly fitting your ground, and the ruta-baga crop is no exception to this rule. If I could have my choice I would select an old June-grass sod, of light, sandy soil. If I could not have that, I would take a clover sod. The next thing I would choose would be a corn or potato field, well tilled tlie year before. On any such ground you ought to grow 600 bushels to tlie acre. Soon after corn-planting draw on your manure and plow your ground. Then drag it lightly. Occasionally during the season run over it with the liarrow, just enough to scarify the top and mellow the surface. Keep up the harrowing at various times until the last of June or the first of July. Then cultivate the ground as deep as you can without disturbing the manure. The turnip is a small seed, and if the ground is lumpy it will not grow. I take a couple of slabs about eight feet long, put the smooth, round side down, fasten them together, and then spike on a two-by-four scantling on which to hitch a team. On this lump-crusher I put a boy and let him go over the ground, which leaves it perfectly smooth. About the time for sowing I watch until I think it is going to rain, and then I drill them in ])erfectly straight rows, about three feet apart. I take great jjains to have the rows ^lerfectly straight, not so much for looks as for convenience in cultivating. We put in the seed tolerably thick, so the insects can have a little. After they are fairly up we run through witli a revolving blade cultivator, just enough to scarify the top of the ground. You must not allow the weeds to get the start of the turnips. When the plants are up, thin them out so that no two will touch each other. Don't let the turnip stop grow- FAKMEKS' INSTITUTES. 141 ing a second imtil it is matured. When tliey are large enough to know that you are going to have a good stand, go tlirough and thin out, leaving them about 16 or 18 inches apart. After this go through with your cultivator often enough to keep the ground perfectly clean, and I will guarantee that you will have a good crop of turnips. Last year we had two and a half acres, and by measuring two rows we estimated the 3aeld to have been 2,058 bushels. AVhen I come to harvest my crop I cut the tops off with a hoe. I then put them in long pits, and cover well with good, dry straw, then put on earth not over six inches thick. In order to give them air, while covering I place sticks along on top of the heap every noAV and then, pack the dirt around them, and when I have finished covering I work the stick around, thus leaving a hole. I leave these holes open until the extreme cold weather, then I throw on a shovel of manure to close them, and the ruta-bagas always come out nice in the spring. Some object to feeding turnips to milch cows, because they give a bad taste to the milk and butter. They might do this if they were stunted and strong, but my experience is that ruta-bagas kept growing rapidly through the season are free from that strong taste, and do not affect the inilk. DISCUSSION. Mr. Rogers. — You spoke about keeping the ground clean. Is that the only thing necessary? Mr. Hendryx. — I want to say in addition, when your plants get up pretty Avell cultivate deep and bring up the manure. J. J. Woodman. — What kind of a drill do you use? Mr. Hendryx. — We use a seed drill which my son purchased in Chicago. I don't know the name of it, but it does excellent work. Mr. Glidden. — Any person can fix his farm drill so that it will answer every purjiose in seed-sowing. Mr. Hendryx. — A drill is not very expensive. Every farmer should have one to drill in his parsnips, peas, radishes, etc. Joseph Gilman. — The last time you go through, do you turn the dirt towards the ruta-bagas or from them ? Mr. Hendr}^^. — I never turn the dirt toward the ruta-baga, and I don't want to take much from it. I should not sow my seed earlier than June 20, or later thaii July 7. David W^oodmau. — What kind of nita-baga do you find most profitable? Mr. Hendryx. — I think the yellow Swedish turnip, or ruta-baga, the most val- uable of any I have ever raised or seen. Prof. R. C. Kedzie was next called, who gave his lecture on *'Muck." This lecture, and the discussion upon it, are given after this record of the Institutes. Next in order was an essay by Mr. Erastus Osborne, on EECLAIMING WET LANDS. In 1864 I bought a farm with a stream of water running across it, and skirted along on either side with low, wet land of various qualities, including the mow- ing marsh, poplar grove, willow swale, and all the briars and brambles native to low ground ; and was accounted worthless, or nearly so, by most people. I commenced clearing the highest ground right away, and met with varied success, having no money, and what was of more importance, no knowle(Jge of how the work ought to be done. 142 STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. I found that the first thing necessary was to get rid of tlie water, so I com- menced cutting drains, and soon proved the old adage, that '^' where there is a will there is a way." I dug the willows out of a swale and plowed it late in the fall, the water following the plow from one to four inches deep. I well remem- ber one of our old farmers came along and said to me, ^'I would not plow that ; it will grow up and be worse than ever." My reply was, "not while I live." Others said, "you will make it look better, but you will never get pay for your work." The words of encouragement were few. I still live, and it has grown up to good crops, such as oats and hay, and at the present time there is no waste land to be seen along my creek as far as the old place extends, a distance of about 175 rods, though I lost time and money at first by not knowing the crops best adapted to such lands. After experimenting three or four years I settled on a plan of my own, mainly like this : First cut drains suiiicient in all cases to carry off the water rapidly, so in case of wet seasons it will run off as fast as it falls, and it must not fail to be all off the surface by the first of June, or your work will be thrown away. There are many kinds of wet lands, and they want different handling. The mowing marsh is generally tough, and should be plowed in the fall and left to freeze through the winter, and it will be well rotted and ready for cultivation the next season. I would not seed to grass until the second crop, unless the ground is so soft that it is hard to work. I should recommend j^lowing all kinds of low ground in the fall. In a willow swale or thicket of any kind, cut with an axe a little below the surface, taking out as much of the root as you can handily. Poplar groves may be subdued in various ways. If they are small, pull them out. If they are large, it is easier, and I think cheaper, to cut them down, and fence in and jiasture enough to keep down most of the sj^routs for about three years, and the stumps will nearly all come out. Sprouts will spring up along the roots, but the stumps never sprout, and the roots become brittle, and break very easily with the plow. In all cases where the surface is composed of l)0gs and a sort of spongy, mossy mixture, and filled with roots, if you can get a good burn the work is done. Should you fail in this, put a fence around it and keep sheep and cattle on until it becomes rotten, and what sprouts they do not keej) down should be cut down every year in July or August, and they die and decay very soon. We have a large amount of low, wet, swaley land, covered with all kinds of timber and brambles, and water in spring and fall. In that class of land the large roots run on or near the surface to d great distance from the trunk of the tree, which makes it imj^ossible to do anything with it. To reclaim this sort, cut the under- brush and then cut off the large timber. Let it lie until thoroughly dry, and burn. Fence in and keep stock on it, sprouting off annually what the stock fail to keep down, and by that time it can be plowed and seeded, and soon looks like old pasture. One word about making sheep clear land. My way is to fence in all such pieces and let them spring up green, then turn the sheep on, and let them live there until it is thoroughly eaten and trampled down, and then remove them to good feed. There is no need of keeping sheep star\dng on new ground all summer, and bring them to the yard spring poor in the fall, — a course which is both inhuman and unprofitable. You can subdue land and keep them on good feed four-fifths of the time, and have them fat in the fall. I do not expect to enlighten many or much ; but Avhen I go about the country and see so many open fields disfigured by cat-holes that I know can be cleared so FAEMEES' INSTITUTES. 143 easily with a few clays' work, it makes me think some one ought to stir some- body up. All that is wanted is to tliinJc it can be done, and it will be done. Let me say to yon who have one or more such blemishes on your farms, go at them now, while the water is low, and persevere, and before you know it they Avill be gone, and good crops will take the place of bushes and briars. James A. Lee, one of my neighbors, had a few acres of low ground covered with poplar and cherry and grubs of all kinds, and also covered with water a great portion of the year. Having been previously drained, it was cut off in August, ' 73, of course when in full leaf, so that there was a great burden of litter on the ground, which formed an excellent bed for fire. After lying about one year it was burned. It was dug up a little with a plow and drag, and sowed with wheat and grass seed. The wheat (a very good crop) was cut last summer, and it now looks like old pasture land, and all in the short space of two years. And now let me say to you that this reclaiming low, wet, marshy, shrubby land is not a play spell, and is much easier talked about than done. You will often hear men say that it is the best land we have, and all sorts of similar remarks, but were I to take my choice between good, grubby openings and the low swales of Michigan, I would take grubby upland ; and I think I ought to have a choice, for I am pretty well used to both. I have followed the breaking plow and grub hoe for the last 35 years, more or less. My doctrine is that a poor man has no business with any more land, either wet or dry, than he can clear up and use. To pay $15 or 820 per acre and let it lie idle is murder in the first degree, financially. There are quite too many men in this county who are land poor, just because they are sleeping, and thinking that the money they have invested is going to double or treble while they sleep. In August last I bought an old, neglected farm, containing some wet land which I directly set about draining. I asked my neighbor if he would let the water off if I let it down on him, and he said "let it come ; I will take care of it;" and he did. I cut a drain across, and without seeing another neighbor he continued it to the line between his land and mine, and then we cut anotlier on the line ; and in all, since I commenced work on the place, there have been over 400 rods of drain cut. And let me say right here, that it has all been done without the aid of township or drain commissioner, and I think that where ditching is required it is much better for those interested to do it mutually, and thereby save the expense of paying officers for locating, which sometimes costs nearly as much as the digging. It has been my misfortune, while collecting taxes this winter, to hear our supervisor most severely and unjustly censured on account of the drain tax assessed on our township, for which he was no more resijonsible than the tax -payers who abused him so unnecessarily. In my judgment our wet lands can be drained just as effectually, and nmch more cheajjly, without the assist- ance of red tape or taxes. One word about who can clear such land. A man must either have means to hire, or else not be afraid to get into the briars and mud, or to put his team into the mud ; otherwise he will be quite apt to get discouraged in the beginning. I have spent the past two months in the swamp, and I am authorized to say that the work is hard, and the poison sumach worse than the work. As to the first crop to raise on the low lands, I see now very plainly that if I had at first understood what crop to use I could have done much better. The past dry seasons I have raised very nice potatoes, selling them for three or four 144 STATE BOAED OF AGEICULTURE. « years at one dollar or more per bushel. It is adapted to various other crops, such as turnips, oats, millet, Hungarian, etc., but the best crop, and the one sure to subdue the land quick and bring quick returns, is buckAvheat. I should sow it every time. Indeed, I find it as i^rofitable under the right conditions as wheat or any other cro]3. There are many drains cut across open fields, and many more needed. The usual way, of course, is to shovel them out, but I think I worked out an improvement on that method last fall. I took the plow and commenced plow- ing the same as to plow around a small land, and after ploAving and dragging it five or six times I scraped it back each way, using for a scraper a two-inch plank seven feet long, simply beA"eled off on one edge, and a hole through near each end to put in a chain, and fitted Avith tAvo handles. After scraping, plow several times and scrape again. I think a ditch can be cut in this Avay for one- fourth the exijense that it can be Avitli the shovel, and it certainly is worth four times as much. You aa'Iio may try this ploAV hereafter for the first time will be surprised to see hoAV easily the Avork can be accomplished. Mr. HoAvard S. Kogers next read an essay on THE CRAKBERRT, — ITS CULTURE, ETC. The increasing demand, and high price Avhich this fruit has brought in the past few years, has stimulated agriculturists into looking after the proper requirements for supplying the demand. Like all new enterprises and under- takings, it has been attended from the start Avith difficulties. These have occurred from the Avant of projier knoAvledge supported by experience, and as a consequence failure and disappointment haA'C frequently been the result, AA'hile success, as a rule, has rather been the excejotion. The reason for this is obvious to the most superficial observer ; for like every- thing else that promises a large return for a small investment, it will find inexperienced enthusiasts Avho are ready to put in their last dollar and take the chances ; and as a consequence many ha^-e abandoned cranberry culture in dis- gust. But the culturist aa'Iio has set out AAdtli a determination to succeed, has only to remember that nearly CA'ery valuable product noAV raised on the farm has at some time or other been the subject of failure and speculation, and it Avould be a little singular if the cranberry did not haA-e to pass through the same ordeal. Varieties. The cranberry family is divided into four varieties ; or more properly one variety subdivided into four sub-varieties : 1st, The Cherry, Avhicli is the most common, and so named from its close resemblance to the fruit after Avhicli it is called ; 3d, The Bugle cranberry, so called from its resemblance in shape to the bugle bead ; 3d, The Bell or Pear sliaped cranberry, so called from its fancied resemblance in shape to a bell or j^ear ; 4th, The Small Gray, of irregular shaj)e, and dark gray or brown in color. Of the three former, for productiveness or quality there is but little choice, and that more in the eye and taste of the cultivator than any real distinction there is in them. Of the small gray, although of similar habit to the others, in some respects it is entirely distinct. "While it grows on a vine that cannot be distinguished from FARMERS' INSTITUTES. 145 the others unless in bearing, the fruit is smaller, less tart, and more filled with seeds. At the same time it is a good keeper, and the quality preferred by some. But it cannot be recommended for general cultivation. Essentials to Success. The four essentials to successful cranberry culture are, first, a bed of muck at least two feet deep, and no matter how much deeper ; second, facility for thorough drainage ; third, an ample supply of running water, with sufficient head to flow the whole ground at any and all times ; fourth, an accessible supply of sand, the whiter and cleaner the better. We put muck a? of the first iirportance, not without knowing, however, that it is a mooted question, with some authors on the subject claiming that cran- berries can be grown on almost any soil where any other vegetable growth Avill succeed. But I think this advice should be taken with a good degree of caution. The cranberry is one of the most tart fruits grown, and in order to grow it successfully a supply of the essential elements must be provided ; and nothing, so far as our observation or experience goes, so nearly supplies this want as a bed of muck. "While there may be locations on the sea-shore, almost wholly of sand, which, by its long contact with water and vegetable matter may have become so filled with acid as to form a good and permanent supply of this essential element in cranberry culture, I am satisfied that in the west our reli- ance must be on muck. We place Drainage as of next greatest importance, from the well-established fact that stagnant water is not conducive to vegetable growth or life, and in order to avoid it, as well as to have complete control of tlie grounds, the matter of drainage should be carefully looked after : and with myself, were all the otlier essentials perfect, and this one lacking, I should abandon the spot wdthout a moment's hesitation. And in the selection of ground for a plantation, the first consideration should be the facilities for drainage. The next important element is Water. Although for the sake of order it is put in the third place of importance, in practical application it should be the first, for without it cranberry culture would be a failure ; and however flattering in every other respect the prospect may be, without this my advice would be to let it alone, — or at most toncli it with caution. With water the vine is stimulated to production, and protected from the inclemency of the elements, wdiile the fruit, in its various stages of growth, from blossom to maturity, can be protected from its enemies, the fly, the worm, and frost, by the free use of water. And we would repeat again the importance of having an ample supply of Avater available, and at the command of the grower at all times. The fourth element. Sand, Should be what is usually termed beach sand, or tlie nearest possible approach to it, as any considerable portion of soil intermixed with the sand is conducive to the growth of weeds and grass, elements to be dreaded beyond all others by the cranberry culturist. Sand performs three important offices : the first of which is that it furnishes a fertilizing material important to the growth of the plant; second, by the radiation of heat, it assists in maturing, ripening, and 19 146 STATE BOAED OF AGEICULTUKE. coloring the fruit: and third, by covering the ground it acts as a mnlch, either choking out or preventing foreign vegetation from coming in. In the selection of a Location care and good judgment must be exercised, for with the best after-treatment on a poor location, the labor and care bestowed will be unproductive, and disap- pointment will be the resiilt. The first point, of course, will be to secure a bed of muck, and the other essentials as accessible as possible. In the matter of selecting a location, if considered wholly in a commercial point of view,— that is, if it is undertaken with the one end of gain in view, — no one should be satis- fied without having everything of the most satisfactory character. On the other hand, if the location is already an "eye-sore" to the farm, and its reclamation and planting is undertaken as much for looks and general appearance as pros- pective gain, an entirely different view should be taken of the subject, as pleasure is to be taken into the account as well as dollars and cents ; and when the two can be combined, bringing all the elements necessary to success together, and at the same time reclaim an otherwise wortliless swamp, and bring it into useful and profitable production, makes a double-paying investment. After selecting a proper location, comes the Preparation for Planting, which, after grublnng, and the removal of logs, brush, etc., should either be l^lowed, or the sod removed with cart and spade from the ground, after which it should be covered with sand from two to four inches deep. In my own case, instead of following this plan, I had tlie whole surface spaded over, from eighteen inches to two feet in depth, taking the sand, of which there Avas a supply from the bottom of the ditches. But this practice I would not recommend, as it is tedious, expensive, and no more effective than the cheaper and more simple processes. The greatest difliculty to overcome after turning over so deep, was the rank growth of weeds and coarse grass thrown up by the uncongenial soil brought to the surface from so great a depth, and requiring two or three years to subdue sufficiently for the reception of the phints. Upon whatever plan adopted, let the preparation be of the most thorough character, as no future Avork Avill make up for a lack at this stage of the improvement ; and after all the preparation that would be considered necessary by the ncAV beginner, we would advise the thorough cultivation of still another year before planting, for the purpose of allowing the soil to become homogeneous, and killing out all the foreign vegetation that is possible. This extra pains is made necessary by the fact that after planting the vine grows so A'ery fast that it is almost impossible to cultivate the ground without injuring tlie plants. After the preparation of tlie ground, comes Plants and Planting. In the selection of plants the grower should go the season previous to the natural bog Avhere the plants are in bearing, or to those Avho have them for sale, and make his selection from bearing vines. While Ave have an almost unlimited confidence in mankind in general and cranberry men in particular, Ave would not, after going to the trouble and expense of preparing a plat suitable for planting, want to depend on any man's word for the reliability of the bearing quality of the plants to be used. When the vines are on the ground, ready for planting, commence by making FAKMEES' INSTITUTES. 147 shallow trenches or furrows three feet apart, and as long as you wish to plant, and in tlieso furrows place the vines lengtliwise, allowing the twigs to project upward, and at the same time cover the main vine an inch or so deep with your foot as you proceed along the furrow. It does not matter whether there is a root on the vine or not, as they will grow equally as well without as with. In fact, some growers recommend running the vines through a feed-cutter, and then sowing them broadcast; but this, in our estimation, would look rather slovenly and slip-shod for the progressive age in which we live. As soon as the vines are planted irrigation should commence by letting on just water enough to keep the ground moist, and the plants in good growing condition. But little fruit can be looked for in the first two years after plant- ing, and a full crop not until the end of the fourth year. In the fall, as soon as the picking of the crop is done, water should bo turned on, and kept there until all danger of frost is over in the spring, and then, in case of a late frost ■or an attack by the worm or fly, immediate resort must be had to the water, and the whole surface flooded and kept so until the danger of frost is over or the enemy exterminated. ITarvesU7ig. In harvesting the crop it is best not to be in too great haste to commence, as fruit well ripened on the vine is of much more value than when picked before maturity ; and by having water at command as recommended, the danger from ■early frosts is obviated, and harvesting can be carried along at leisure. This facility of better ripening is the chief advantage of the cultivated berry over those grown on the wild marshes, while the latter have to be picked at the ■earliest practicable moment in order to secure them from outsiders, thus destroy- ing their best quality both for taste and keeping. In picking, the ground should be accurately staked off in convenient spaces for the pickers, and each one required to take an entire through, for if allowed full liberty they will be inclined to run over the ground to look for better picking, to the damage of the fruit and vines, and the general demoralization of the comj^any. Women and children are the best pickers, and will gather on an average, where the picking is fair, a bushel a day to the hand. Marketing. As yet the local markets are hardly supplied with this fruit, and the taste of the people increasing each year, making a demand equal to, if not exceeding the supply. Like every other product, a great deal depends upon the manner in which it is put up for market. Many farmers will raise a fair crop of grain, but by the slovenly manner in which it is marketed they lose nearly all the profit there is in the crop, while others will take grain of a lower grade, and by better cleaning and preparation get the better price of the two. So it is with the cranberry : apjjearance has a great deal to do with its market value. Thor- ough cleaning, and the picking out of all soft or wormy berries, is absolutely necessary. Putting up in attractive packages is an advantage not to be over- looked, but at the same time let it be distinctly understood what the package contains, and never try to palm off a basket for more than it contains. In conclusion, and in reply to many inquiries as to the profitableness of cran- berry culture, I would say, that where all the requirements can be brought together in combination with brain and capital, and with a good stock of perse- verance and patience, a fair return for the money invested can be looked for. 148 STATE BOAED OF AGllICULTUKE. But let any one who contemplates entering the field as a speculator disabuse his mind at once, for there have been too many of that class at work already ; while to the industrious, persevering^ man, who can be satisfied with fair returns, the field is a promising one, and well worthy of an investigation. AFTERNOON SESSION. The afternoon session was opened by Prof. K. C. Kedzie, who gave his lecture on ** Lightning Rods." (See lectures and discussions following this record of the Institutes.) Mr, R. C. Carpenter, 0. E. of the Agricultural College, addressed the Insti- tute on . FARM MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS. Machinery of all kinds has been very much improved and very much changed within the last half century. Fifty years ago mechanical inventions were few in number, rude, easily con- structed, and producing even rough work only after a vast outlay of time and trouble. With the machinery of that day which was thought to be necessary to produce the few necessities of life, we find man nearly provided by nature. In each house were found all the elements of an independent existence : the flax, the brake for dressing it, the little old wheel for spinning it, and the old hand loom for weaving it ; the wheat, the flail for threshing it, the old f anning- mill for winnowing it, or more frequently winnowing it by throwing into the air, and often the pestle for grinding it. The old method of haying, with all its tediousness, must still be fresh in your minds. You surely have not forgotten the back-aches engendered by the use of the old-fashioned, straight-handled scythe, nor the seeming insignificance of your hard day's work. In those days, mowing through, haying was nearly done ; but even then many tedious days of work, turning and spreading the swaths and raking by hand, had to elapse before the hay was completely cured. These are but few of the many inconveniences to which we were subjected a short time ago. Then our means of locomotion on land were confined exclu- sively to those given by nature either to ourselves or to animals, and on water we found our sole motive jDower in the winds or in our own muscles. Manufac- tories were at a low ebb, producing hand-made work at such cost as to prevent any extensive use. The introduction of machinery was at first greatly resisted. For instance, when it was introduced into the factories there was a terrible hue and cry from weavers at their hand looms, against the use of machinery, as taking their employment from them ! You know how it is. More hands are employed to-day than then, and their condition is vastly improved. The introduction of machinery in their case, as in all others, improved the quality, lessened the price, and was the consequent instigator of a demand that knows no satisfaction. We as a nation use machinery. It is estimated that $500,000,000 worth of machinery is employed on our farms alone each year, and with that machinery we do nearly every kind of w^ork, ^Yc have machines in successful operation at all kinds of farm work ; we have machines producing every kind of manuf ac- FARMEES' INSTITUTES. 149 tured article, and wo liave Avonderful machines for locomotion either on land or water. The very fact that there is so much money in our machinery has led many an unprincipled man into its manufacture. The country is literally flooded with worthless patent rights, and every collection of agricultural implements contains many got up utterly devoid of any mechanical iirinciple. The smooth-tongued vendor of these worthless implements describes in glowing terms their wonderful qualities, and frequently Avill sell his implement where the less talkative dealer in more reliable implements will fail. Much loss has been occasioned by overlooking the simple principles which govern the working of machines and implements, and a few have suffered them- selves to be imposed on and deceived, when a simple and ready application of these principles would at once have detected errors, without resorting to an expensive trial. The day should be past for the commission of such blunders, as the man who thought he was favoring the weaker horse in his team by giving him the shorter end of the whiffletree ; or of the other man who balanced the bushel of grain on his horse's back by putting the grain in one end and a large stone in the other; or of still another man, who, in order to rest his horse's back when riding to mill on the bag of grain, transferred the grain, Avithout alighting, from the horse's back to his own shoulder. That the day is not past when less obvious blunders of the same sort are sometimes committed, is positively proved by the fact that many agents of worthless imtent riglits are every day growing richer. The principal reason for the community in general being so easily dui^ed by the patent-right vendor, is on account of their ignorance of just the amount of work a machine should do. There are two great laws which, if thoroughly mastered, will protect the farmer in his purchases, and assist the manufacturer in his con- struction. The first is the "law of virtual velocity," or, in other words, ** whatever is gained in time is lost in power," and vice versa. This, stated in another way, is, Forces are always equal when the products of tlie power, multi- plied by the distance, are equal." You are all familiar with examples of the application of this law. If you take a straight stick, say three feet long, and put its center over a block for a fulcrum, it will remain at rest, or balance ; that is, the forces acting on each end are equal. The same results will be true if you put a pound weight on each end ; but if you move one of the weights six inches nearer the fulcrum the bahince is destroyed. In the first case, supposing the weights to be each two pounds, and the distance 18 inches ; you had, by the rule stated, power X distance = power times distance, or 2 X 18 = 2 X 18 ; while in the second case you had 2 pounds at 12 inches = 2 pounds at 18 inches, or 2 X 12 = 2 X 18j which is absurd. But you can make one pound balance two pounds by placing one pound twice as far from the fulcrum. This is true, bothin practice and theory, for 1 X 18 inches = 2 X ^ inches. You know that shortening the distance or lever arm has the same effect as the lightening of the Aveight, and you have here also learned that when one weight was lightened equilibrium was restored by a corresponding lengthening of its lever arm. Now placing the stick with its center over the fulcrum and moving the end up and down, each end will move with the same velocity, for it will pass over an equal space in the same time. Moving the stick so that the fulcrum is twice as near one end as the other, the same motion gives one end (the one on tlie long side) twice the velocity of the shorter one, for it passes over twice the space in the same time ; and by this we see that the velocity and the lengtli vary the same, and consequently in any given exj)ression we can substitute the one for the other. 150 STATE BOAED OF AGKICULTUKE. You Avell know liow you can make one pound balance two pounds, — or in otlier words, how a man weighing 150 j)ound3 can raise any thing less than 300 jiounds ; but you notice that the lever arm on which he works is twice the length of that of the weight, and that he moves twice as fast, or passes through any given space in half the time that the weight occupies in going through. So it is with all machinery, from the simple grindstone to the complicated time-piece ; from the horse pitch-fork to the steam locomotive. All recognize the great law that any increase of power is always accompanied by a corresponding loss, either of velocity or of time ; and vice versa, any increase of velocity, and con- sequent saving of time, can only be done at the expense of power. An example of this last is seen in the steam locomotive. When the driver Avishes to go faster he cither reduces his load or increases his head of steam, which constitutes the driving power ; but in no case can he increase his velocity without first increas- ing his power, or, what has the same effect, reducing his load. The second law is that of moinentum, whose poAverful effects deserve a few remarks. Its great force is shown by such simple operations as driving nails with a hammer, or wedges with a beetle. The weight of the hammer with the strength of the arm added would not drive the nail, but the momentum, — that is, the combination of velocity and weight, — does the work in an instant. Inventors of machinery are sometimes much puzzled because of the failure of full-sized machines, where models have worked perfectly. They did not take into account the enormous increase of momentum caused by increasing the parts. For instance, if a model six inches long be made into a machine five feet long, the momentum of the moving parts will be 10,000 times increased. This fact should lead us to be cautious in tlie purchase of implements or machinery of any kind from seeing the work of a model. N"o neAV implement should be purchased Avithout an exhaustive and satisfactory trial of a working machine. WorJc of a JlacJiine. The sole work of a machine, Avliatever be its kind, consists in transmitting and modifying force or motion. There is no machine, nor can there be any, that will give any increase of both poAver and velocity. There are an endless variety of machines that Avill giA'e a marked increase of one of these, but investi- gation Avill invariably shoAV that this increase is accompanied by a corresponding decrease of the other. In the yards of the copper-smelting works at Detroit there is a large crane, by means of Avhich eighteen tons can easily be lifted by six men. Now the men do not exert over 80 pounds of force apiece, consequently Ave have 480 poiTnds of force lifting 3C,000 pounds, or one pound of force lifting 75 pounds. But we notice another thing, Adz., that it takes 75 revolutions of the driving-Avheel to produce one revolution of the drum or Avheel that does the lifting. Consequently, although the men lift 75 times as much as they could Avithout the aid of the crane, they nevertheless are required to move 75 times as far. The great advantage of machines is found principally in this one thing : they giA'e us poAver when Ave Avant it, or they give us velocity Avhen Ave Avant it. Of Avhat use would velocity be in the crane? None at all; and it might even be, damaging, as a body as heavy as 18 tons, moving Avitli much speed, Avould be not only uuAvieldy, but positively dangerous. Again, in the case of the buzz-saw Ave need a great deal of velocity, and A^ery little or no lifting poAver ; but in order to get that velocity Ave require the united strength of ten horses. FARMERS' INSTITUTES. 151 Forces Utilized by Macliinery. Another great consideration is this : Macliines enahle ns to perform useful labor with force that would otherwise would be of little or no account. To this class belong all our powerful and costly machines, including all those that move by steam power, by water power, and by electricity. If no objections, we shall increase this list, and include all those that are run by horse power ; for cer- tainly horse power would be of no benefit without some contrivance or machinery. The various animal forces, also heat, electricity, and gravity are made of prac- tical utility to man only by aid of machines. Gravity gives weight to all bodies on the earth, and is the force which finally brings a moving body to rest, or causes a body to fall. It is gravity that causes the descending water of the torrent to tremble, to shake, to foam, and to move with the velocity of the light- ning over the cataract ; but it is only through machinery that this velocity and this power can be utilized and made to do the former laborious work of man. Electricity is a force of which as yet but little is known, but by aid of machinery we magnetize hundreds and even thousands of miles of soft iron wire in an instant, and attract a bit of iron on the other end. We drop the key and the wire is as instantly unmagnetized, and the bit of iron on the other end falls, producing the familiar click of the telegraph sounder. Thus we make this subtle force a medium of conversation, and force it to be our principal means of raj)id communication. Besides this use for telegraphy it has been made the motive power for engines. Heat is not usually regarded as a force, though it is a well-known fact that as substances absorb heat they increase in length, or as it is usually said, "they expand." The principal use of heat in connection with machinery is in con- verting water into the steam ^\ liich is the apparent motive power of the steam engine. Though steam as a motive power is being used to a certain extent to run agri- cultural machines, yet, on account of the danger attending the use of fire, and also on account of the high salaries of skillful engineers, it is not probable that it will come into any general use for some time to come. Most of the motive power needful for agricultural purposes can come only from animal forces, and fortunately we have machines that may be run by appljdng these forces in a variety of ways. For instance, we have the tread power, which is run by the weight of the animal ; the ordinary rotary power, in which the motive force is obtained by the animal pulling while walking in the circumference of a circle ; and machines whose power is developed by the animal continually moving in one direction. Action of Macliines. The action of a machine is to produce motion against a resistance. For instance, if the machine is one for lifting solid bodies, as a crane, or fluid bodies, a pump, the action is to produce upward motion of the lifted body against the resistance arising from its weight. If the machine is one for propulsion, as the locomotive, its action is to produce motion of a load against the resistance aris- ing from friction and from gravity. If a mowing machine, the action is to produce such a motion in certain parts a5 shall overcome the resistance of the standing grass. Lost Worh — Friction. Should we measure the amount of force transmitted to the mowing machine by the team that pulls it, we would find it considerably in excess of that needed 153 STATE BOAED OF AGRICULTURE. to give the requisite motion to the knives. As tlie knives move no faster than is uecessar)', tliis may not at first look reasonable ; but I think when you con- sider how much of a load must be pulled, and how many pieces of machinery must be made to move before the knives stir, you will admit that there must be a great deal of lost work, for the only work that is effective is that which gives motion to the knives, and this Ave term the useful work. There is more or less work lost in every machine. In the steam engine, 90 to 97 per cent is lost ; in ordinary machines 40 to 90 per cent is lost, depending to a great extent on the character and construction of the machine, while in the turbine water-wheel, the most perfect of known machines, but 13 per cent is lost. This lost work, that is, the work that goes into a machine but does not come out, is mostly used up in overcoming friction. The rubbing of wheel on wheel, the turning of axle in its box, or the slipping of band, all indicate a waste of power for which there is no complete remedy. The waste of power in friction may be greatly lessened, however, by a careful choice of materials, by skillful manufacture, and by the use of unguents. On the other hand, friction may be greatly increased by any unnecessary complexity (for example, in a mowing machine, by the addition of a couple of extra cog wheels above the necessarj'" number), by bungling construction (as when the cog wheels do not fit nicely, or the axles are loose in their boxes), and by neglecting to apply unguents. Unguents should be used wherever there is any sliding friction. This, of course, covers all cases where one body slides on another, and where one axle or other rod rolls in a box or in any stationary piece ; but it docs not cover the case of wheels that come in contact at their circumferences, or of the teeth in cog wheels, as in both these cases there is no sliding friction. Unguents should be thick for heavy pressvires, that they may resist being forced out, and thin for light pressures, that their viscidity may not add to the resistance. Unguents may be divided into the four following classes : I. Water, which acts as an unguent on surfaces of Avood and leather. It is not, however, an unguent for a pair of metallic surfaces, for Avhen applied to them it increases their friction. II. Oily unguents, consisting of animal and vegetable fixed oils, as tallow, lard, lard oil, seal oil, whale oil, olive oil, and castor oil. The vegetable drying oils, such as linseed oil, are unfit for unguents, as they absorb oxygen and become hard. The animal oils, on the Avhole, are better than the vegetable oils. III. Soapy unguents, composed of oil, alkali-, and water. For a temporary purpose, such as lubricating the ways for the launch of a ship, soft soap made irom whale oil and potash, with or Avithout talloAV, is the best of unguents ; but for a permanent pur2)ose, as for lubricating the axles, of raihvay carriages, it should contain more oil or fatty matter than soft soap does. The best grease for such purposes does not contain over 30 per cent of Avater. IV. Bituminous or Pitchy unguents, which are noAv used so rarely that it is ■unnecessary to describe them, though the old tar bucket once had a conspicuous place under the axles of our Avagons. Unguents on Teeth of Wheels. It is quite a common practice among threshers, and Avith some farmers, to apply talloAV or other animal grease to the teeth of Aylieels. In any place Avhere sand or other grit is apt to accumulate, as on a mowing machine or a reaper. FAEMEES' INSTITUTES. 153 grease is ii positive disadvantage, as tlio grit adheres to the teeth, thus Avearing them very fast. Where there is no grit grease does no hurt, but it is at the same time an expensive hixury, as it does no good. "With wheels properly con- structed there is no slipping of the teeth on each other, and no sliding friction. Wheels -whose teeth need to be greased in order to run smooth, arc faulty in their construction, and should be avoided, as they indicate poor workmanship through- out the whole machine. Worhnanshij) and Material. Perhaps no one thing is of more importance in determining the utility and durability of a machine than good workmanshi]). A conception absolutely per- fect can result in nothing but a total failure if constructed by a bungling mechanic. With poor workmanship, the axles chuck and slip in their boxes, producing a tremendous waste of power. Tlie same effect is produced by allow- ing nuts to loosen Avhen working machineiy. Here is an apparatus designed especially to illustrate that j)oint : You observe how easy it moves when the nuts are tight, and there is no slipping at the joints. But now let me loosen this nut: 3'ou see the difference at once. It requires so much force that I can scarcely move it, and very forciljly illustrates the need of close joints and tight nuts. Another thing of great importance is the shape of the teetli in the cog-wheels. We perhaps will find more machines working hard from this one cause than from any other. Very frequently the tooth of one wheel will strike the tooth of another, pull steadily for one instant, rub and slide tlie next instant, and so continue until the whole machine groans and trembles. Witli teeth of such construction, grease could be used with positive advantage. Teeth constructed as they should be wear equally m all parts, and each tooth hits its mate fairly and squarely, has no sliding motion upon it, and leaves it without a jar. The method of forming these curves of the cogs or teeth is quite complicated, and is founded on the following principle : If a wheel were to roll on a board or other level piece, each point would describe a curve ; starting at the bottom when the wheel commences to roll, it rises to the top of the wheel when it has turned half way around, and again sinks to the bottom when the wheel has turned clear around. This curve is oalled the cycloid, and is one on Avhose mathematical properties many an examination pony has been ingeniously composed and gallantly rode by the student of mechanics. If we curve the line so that the circle rolls on the outside of a circumference, we shall have a similar curve called tlie epi-cycloid. If, on the other hand, we curve the base line so that it is concave toward the circle, the cycloid is varied somewhat in form, and is called the hypo-cycloid. Now you saw that the cycloid was made by a wheel rolling on a straight line. The case corresponding to this in machinery is the ordinary rack and pinion ; and we farther notice that if this curve is not given originally to the teeth of such wheels, they will soon wear into tliat shape. In case of two cog-wheels working into each other, the curve becomes very much more complex, for in that case we have one wheel rolling on another, and ,also rolling inside another.; and we find that the face or point outside this line called the pitch line, is epicycloidal, while that inside this line is a portion of a hypo-cycloid. It is to be noticed that these curves are not made by the pitch -circles of the wheels, but by two imaginary equal circles. 20 154 STATE BOAED OF AGEICULTUEE. Thus yon see that even simple elementary portions of machines not only are of much importance, but they have been subjected to such close analysis that exact methods for shaping and proportioning them have been discovered. Though time permits no farther notice of shape and form of parts, science, in her appli- cation does not stop here, but extends her analysis and scrutiny to every piece, not overlooking the smallest screw or slighting the largest Avheel. These points, unimportant as they may seem, are of vital interest so far as the working of the machine is concerned ; and farther, these are not the only points apt to be mis- shaped by the workmen, but simple examples presented to show the degree of accuracy that is needed to make a machine work perfectly. Another thing : you should always closely examine the material of which a machine is nuide. If of wood, satisfy yourself that it is made of varieties fitted to withstand the strains to which they will be subjected, and be sure that each piece is well seasoned and perfectly sound. Too much can not be said against the use of green or unseasoned timber. It shrinks in drying, utterly destroying all appearance of good workmanship, making the joints loose, and rendering the machine rickety and weak. Covering green timljer with paint, is like filling a pit by covering with rushes and a few inches of dirt : it is a pitfall for the unwary. It conceals, but does not remedy defects. On the contrary, it pre- vents proper seasoning of the wood, and dry rot is the inevitable consequence. Your piece fails when least expected, and when most needed ; perhaps a run- away and a broken neck are the dire consequences ; but whatever they may be, you can not too carefully avoid the parricidal use of green timber for important pieces of machinery. Iron of various kinds is now more commonly employed in machinery than wood, and from its greater strength and durability this change is attended with many advantages. Iron, however, is not free from defects, and each piece should be carefully examined for flaws or other failings. In general, the use of cast iron in machinery should be condemned. As it usually comes from our foundries it is very hard and brittle, and is entirely useless for any positions requiring much strength either to withstand vibrations or tensions. Since cast iron is used in a great many cases, it is well to have some means of testing it. Engineers on public works use the following tests : When broken, the surface of the fracture should be of a light bluish-grey color, and close- grained texture, with considerable metallic luster. Both color and texture should be uniform, except near the skin, or surface, the color may be somewhat lighter, and the grain closer. If the fractured surface is mottled, either -with patches of darker or lighter iron, or with crystalline spots, the casting will be imsafe. It will be still more unsafe if it contains air bubbles. As to appearance of good iron, it should have on the outer surface a smooth, clear, and continu- ous skin, with regular faces and sharp angles. The iron should be soft enough to be slightly indented by a blow of a hammer on an edge of the casting. Cast- ings are tested for air bubbles by ringing them with a hammer all over the surface. Objects and Designs of Machinery. Soliciting agents meet you on every side, and claim the preference foi", and endeavor to show how much benefit you will obtain, by buying machines whose vaunted capabilities cover every known qualification. You are shown single machines that will churn, wash, tend baby, sweej:), pare apples, pare potatoes, mop, hem, tuck, broider, sew, knit, and everything else you can think of, for a FARMEKS' INSTITUTES. 155 remarkably low price. Here is a model of one in which you can rock, go to sleep, and churn. Many believe in such machines, and the majority of farmers, I notice, are using combined reapers and mowers, which may in some cases be strokes of true economy, but in most instances the extra wear more than bal- ances the extra cost, besides giving you a poor mower or a poor reaper the whole time. No machine can do well different kinds of work, requiring different or con- flicting capacities. All such attempts at combination invariably end in such a complication of parts as partially or utterly to destroy its effectiveness in any one direction, and make it more liable to accident in every direction. Simplicity is an essential qualification in any machine, as every unnecessary complexity increases the draft and the liability to accidents, thus injuring the utility of the whole machine. We will consider for a moment the requirements for the reaper and the mower, and show that they can not both be satisfied in a combined machine. The work of the reaper is generally found on soft ground, which is more or less rough, and consists in cutting hollow and stiff straw, and carrying a portion of what it cuts some little distance ; consequently the reajaer needs strong driving machinery, — large drive wheels, — slow motion to the knives, and little strength to the cutting parts. On tlie other hand, the mower does its work on a good sod, over comparatively smooth ground, and its work consists in cutting very tough and tine vegetable products ; consequently the mower requires light driving machinery, — light drive wheels, — ^fast motion to the knives, and consequently great strength to the cutting parts. From this you see that every essential qual- ification of the mower is entirely different from the corresponding qualifications of the reaper, and every attempt at combination can but impair its effectiveness either for mowing or reaping, or both. Hon. M. L. Dunlap of Champaign, 111., in the TJ. S. Agricultural Report of 18G3, says : ''He has never as yet seen a good combined reaper and mower, and would never recommend them thus made. * * * The six-feet combined reapers and mowers require four horses, and are much heavier, and will do but little more work in a day at best, as there are always more or less detentions with them. Tiiere can be no economy in thus combining the two machines, and if the farmer will look at the state of facts as they exist, he will never be induced to purchase them. Two hundred acres of grass may be said to be a fair estimate for the use of the mower in one season. The cost of a mower is, say 880 00. The interest, repairs, and deterioration will be about $25 00, or about ten cents an acre, assuming the machine to last ten years. We know one farmer who cut twelve hundred acres of meadow with four machines, drawn by two horses each, and driven by boys of fourteen to sixteen years of age. To have cut this amount of grass with combined machines would have required four additional span of horses, and expert drivers in place of the four boys. We do not think a combined machine would stand more than two seasons' work at this rate, when the account would be as follows : Use of mower at 10 cents per acre 1120 00 Pour teams, 30 days each, 120 days 120 00 Four boys, 30 days each^. 120 days 120 00 Giving total cost of thirty cents an acre, or -. . . . $360 00 156 STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. Poiu- combined macliiue?, -$120 each $480 00 Half charged to reapmg 240 00 Half their value for one year $120 00 Repairs and interest 20 00 Cost of ndng four combined machines one year 1140 00 •Or if they are used to cut 1,200 acres of grass, it \y\\\ amount to 1%^ cents per acre. But the difference does not stop here : Cost of using machines $140 00 Eight span of horses, 30 days each, 240 days 240 00 Four men, 30 days each, 120 days 240 00 $620 00 or 51^ cents per acre — nearly double that of the single mower. We think no one can cavil at the above comparisons. We say the above deliberately, after nearly twenty years' experience with the reaper, and fifteen with the combined machine and single mower." Without doubt the experience of nearly every farmer substantiates the theoiy iind the experience of Mr, Dunlap, From one of the most complex implements we will call your attention to tliat valuable though simple implement, The Plough. Until late in the present cenlary the wooden mold -board plough was in universal use. By the work of Mr. Jethro Wood of New York the cast iron mold-board was introduced, and a new era in the manufacture plows began. Despite the invention of rotary diggers, grubbers, etc., it is not likely that the plow will soon be superseded. Its great leading feature is simplicity. It con- sists substantially of a single part, or is one solid, moving whole, although in its manufacture several parts are united together. This simplicity is of the utmost importance to an implement doing such work, subjected as it is to heavy force and to heavy blows. No complex implement can endure a constant repetition of such blows, and nearly all the complex substitutes no matter how ingenious, can but result in failure. Here are a few models of plows. Doubtless every one of them will work, some better and some worse ; of their peculiar merits I have nothing to say. I have found, however, that nearly every man has a favorite plough, and since that plough does good work for him, though it may not work well for any one else, to him would I recommend that plough alone. But I have already said too much, and I must close ; hoping, however, that in a day not far distant, by means of a dynamometer, an instrument which we do not now possess, I shall be able to give you, through the press, some facts regarding the draught and strength of implements which will be of more imme- diate practical utility. DISCUSSION. J. E. Hendryx, — Did I understand the lecturer to recommend that we use no oil on our machinery? FAKMERS' INSTITUTES. 157 Mr. Carpenter. — No, sir. I said that the cog-wheels should be so constructed as not to require uuguents, Mr. Hayne. — I understood you to say there was no friction on the teeth of the wheels. Don't they have to pass each otlier? Mr. Cari^enter. — If the cogs of two wheels Avork properly together there is no slipping or sliding to cause friction. The cogs merely push against each other, and about all the wear there is upon these cogs conies from tlie vibration of the machine. QUESTION BOX. Ques. — Does not the clearing away of forests and the drainage of swamp lands tend to lessen the amount of rain-fall? Dr. Kedzie. — Lam satisfied that forest growth has a marked influence npon rain-fall. It may not make any difference in the amount of rain-fall during the whole year, but it has a great influence, so far as my observation extends, in the distribution of the rain throughout the year. Where a country is denuded of forest trees it is thought to be more subject to frequent drouths. The question asked has aroused a corps of able observers, and George P. Marsh has written a very valuable work on this subject, entitled ''Man and Nature," published by Wiley & Son, New York. The price is $3, and it is worth ten times that amount to any farmer in the State. In this book yon will find a mass of infor- mation bearing upon this subject. Ques.^ — I have several times found cut-worms with maggots on them. What were they? Prof. Cook. — They Avere evidently the parasites of Avhich I spoke last evening. When the cut-worm comes forth from the ground, tlie little fly Avhich lays the egg for this maggot is ready to attack it. When the eggs of the little fly hatch out these maggots prey upon the worm, and literally eat it up alive. Ques. — Do the farmers present disapprove of the use of the combined reapers and mowers, especially on small farms? Mr. Curry. — I call for a vote on this question. J. K. Hendryx. — Before using the combined machine, I would advise farm- ers to club together and buy tAvo machines. J. J. Woodman, — If it is merely a question as to the merits of single or com- bined machines, then probably the farmers Avill say single machines are prefer- able ; but if the question of economy as Avell as use be taken into consideration, then, certainly the combined machine will get a majority of votes. Few farmers in Van Buren county can indulge in the luxury of two machines. I have used the combined machine for the past fifteen years Avith the utmost success. K. C. Cai^penter. — It is getting to be the custom in the eastern part of this State and in portions of Ohio and Ncav York to use single machines instead of the combined, and I knoAV in some instances Avhere combined machines Avere formerly in use they haA'C been discarded for the moAver, and the reaping is done Avith the cradle. Mr. Hendryx. — Has Mr. Woodman used both kinds of machines? Mr. Woodman. — Perhaps not practically. I Avould much prefer singlo machines if the question of economy did not come into consideration, but on these 40 and 80 acre farms I don't want to see anything Avhich Avill look as. if we recommend that the combined machines should be discarded. J. K. Hendryx. — If I could not buy tAVo machines, I Avould induce my neigh- bors to unite Avitli me before I Avould iise the combined machine. 158 STATE BOAKD OF AGEICULTURE. When the vote was taken there was a pretty decided majority for tlie use of combined machines in Van Buren county. Ques. — Whicli is the most desirable ; a summer fallow kept clear from grass and weeds, with frequent stirring and exposure to the summer sun, or to allow it to grow up to grass and weeds and then plow under? Dr. Kedzie. — It depends very much on the nature of the soil. To answer the question properly, however, you must bring up questions which would furnish material for half a dozen institutes. A clay soil which is sufficiently supplied with vegetable matter would be benefited by clean cultivation, while the same kind of management on a sandy soil might be injurious. Ques. — What is the best method of catching, killing, and preserving worms, bugs, and insects? Prof. Cook. — That is a pretty long subject for five minutes, and better be postjioned until there is time for a full lecture upon the subject. Ques. — How late should ruta-bagas be cultivated? J. E. Hendryx. — I would recommend cultivation as long as you can get through without injuring tlie tojDS. When your cultivator begins to break off the toj)s then quit. Ques. — Does spontaneous combustion ever take place? Dr. Kedzie. — My answer to that is that spontaneous combustion does fre- quently take place. In some substances oxidation is very rapid, and the heat becomes so excessive that fire ensues. Cotton rags soaked with linseed oil are often the source of spontaneous combustion. Ques. — What is tlie difference between theoretical and practical agriculture? Dr. Kedzie. — The office of tlie agricultural chemist is to explain the facts which the practical farmer finds out. Ques. — Would the application of ashes to mucky soils improve them for grass, cereals, or vegetables? Dr. Kedzie. — Ashes would be one of the very best things you could apply to your land, and if you have plenty of ' ashes and muck there is no limit to the capacity of your farm. Qaes. — Are jjlants indebted for any of their growth to any substance secured from the air? Dr. Kedzie. — The plant derives a large portion of its carbon from the carbonic acid of the air. Ques. — What is tlie comparative value of roots, beets and turnips of the dif- ferent varieties, for feeding stock, as compared with corn? Mr. Lyle. — In feeding stock for the market I prefer corn and ruta-bagas, wnth plenty of good hay. I have been in the feeding business 21 years. In handling cattle, when the pastures begin to get short in the fall I begin to use my corn, ruta-bagas, and hay, and in three months from the pastures I can gen- erally have my steers good beef. J. J. Woodman. — Have you ever tested the comparative value of ruta-bagas and corn for feeding sheep and cattle? Mr. Lyle. — I frequently, when feeding corn so heavy, feed ruta-bagas three or four times in a week. Too much corn makes them feverish. J. K. Hendryx. — How many bushels of ruta-bagas do you consider equal to a bushel of corn for fattening purposes? Mr. Lyle. — I should think about four bushels of ruta-bagas to one of corn. Mr. Hayden. — I never have had much experience in feeding stock, and do not speak from my own knowledge ; but I recollect of seeing a statement in the FAKMEES' INSTITUTES. 159 New York Timos^ claimed to have been based on actual experiment, which said that nine bushels of ruta-bagas were equivalent to one of corn. Mr. Hendryx. — I don't think that test was made with the yellow Swedish turnip. Mr. Morton. — I would inquire whether Mr. Hayden makes that statement as the result of a scientific investigation? Mr. Hayden. — Tlie tenor of the paper was to show by careful analysis the real value of these two articles of food. Dr. Kedzie. — I don't consider that a mere analysis will determine the ques- tion of value. A large proportion of one kind of food may pass through an animal's stomach undigested, while another kind of food may be easy of digest- ion, and the animal receive the whole benefit of the food. The experiments of one practical agriculturist in this matter of feediug is worth more than the experiments of all the chemists in the country. Mr. Lyle. — I know that you can go into the New York market and you will see droves of cattle from Canada which they claim are fatted on ruta-bagas ; and I know no finer stock ever find their way to that mai'ket. W. G. Beckwith. — I have never had very much experience in raising and feeding ruta-bagas, but, so far as my knowledge and experience goes, I think it a very expensive way for me to water my stock. I claim that in this country we can raise hay and corn cheaper than we can roots. If I was going to raise any root crop, I would raise "petaters." [ A voice. — Oh, my ! ] Mr. Beckwith. — Mr. Lyle says that in Canada they raise their stock on ruta- bagas, which may be undoubtedly true, but they have extensive clover fields, and also raise a great deal of hay and corn. I claim that in Canada they can raise turnips a great deal better than we can ; for there is hardly ever any year but w^hat they are sure of a crop, while here tliere are many failures. There is another great mistake about feeding cattle : The same gentleman says they get feverish if you feed corn steadily. Tlie simple reason is that they feed too much grain and not enough hav. One of the best feeders in Michigan told me the amount of grain he had fed his stock during the past 20 or 30 years, and I could hardly believe him until I saw the experiment tried. There is not one man in twenty but what feeds his horses double the amount of grain they require for their own good. Feed less grain, and more hay and straw. As far as turnips are concerned, I believe it costs more to raise two acres than it does four acres of corn. I don't believe they pay at all. As I said before, I believe ''petaters" are cheaper than any other root crop. J. E. Hendryx. — I am pretty tenacious on this turnip business, and I will say to the gentleman, if he will come to see me next fall I will show him as fine a croj^ of turnips as he will wish to look at. I consider four or five bushels of ruta-bagas equal to one of corn. Mr. Dodge. — I would like to ask Mr. Beckwith how much grain his friend was in the habit of feeding? Mr. Beckwith. — He said he fed two quarts of meal at one time to his cattle, three times a day. D. Woodman. — I have grown ruta-bagas for the past two or three years, and I consider one bushel of corn ^vorth as much as nine bushels of turnips. I would much rather raise hay and corn. Horatio Hendryx. — Have you ever made any practical tests in feeding? Mr. Woodman. — I never have. 160 STATE BOAKD OF AGKICULTUKE. Artluir Ilayden was next called upon, who read the following essay on CORN CULTURE. Our knowledge of maize begins with the discovery and conquest of America by the Spaniards, who ruthlessly invaded and ransacked the country in search of wealth of gold and silver, little knowing they were trampling beneath their feet, in their eager march through the fields of Indian corn, the greatest treas- ure the new world held in store. But some were observing enough to note the manner of its culture. Hav- ing no domestic animals, nor any knowledge of iron, the work was all done by hand, and with the rudest implements. The women, upon whom devolved most of the labor, dug up the soil with stakes hardened in the fire, and after the seed was planted all further responsibility of the crop Avas placed upon Dame Nature. In these labors the women of the village all joined, and when autumn was come with sere and yellow leaf, they together sought the field, and husked and bore the grain to the common garner, where it was free to supply the needs of all. Under such conditions the crop was probably vastly inferior, both in qual- ity and quantity, to the vigorous plant and bountiful yield of our more favored times. Having spread to other lands, still, as the child of America, it is found in greatest abundance and perfection in its native land. It is the object of this paper to discuss very briefly the advantages and meth- ods of its culture. The true basis of successful farming is to secure from year to year larger crops at less expense per bushel, and an increasing fertility of soil. More bushels, less cost, richer soil. How does corn culture supplement the efforts of the farmer in attaining these conditions ? To raise large crops there must be immunity from weeds, and with no other grain is there such an opportunity for extirpating them, together with a thor- ough cultivation of the soil for the benefit of the growing and future crops. With a decrease in the prevalence of weeds, the cost of raising all crops is diminished and an increased production of all attained. Corn-raising tends indirectly to increase the fertility of the soil, because, being bulky both in stalk and grain, it is most profitably consumed at home, thereby returning to the soil the major part of the elements abstracted therefrom in its production. The raising of corn to the exclusion of other crops, and for shipment in a crude state, is rei^rehensible, but is likely to correct itself by reason of the greater freight upon the grain than upon the same converted into beef, pork, etc., and tends directly to stimulate the stock industries upon which the recuperation of the soil so largely depends. These are, in outline, some of the advantages of corn culture. But to be an advantage at all to the individual farmer it must be raised at a profit, — which leads to a consideration of the methods of culture upon which, assuming natural advantages, the amount of profit depends. In accordance with the fundamental principles of farming, that method is best which produces the most bushels at least cost, with increased productive- ness of soil. The first essential to the raising of a large crop is, of course, a soil rich in the elements which constitute the food of plants ; which jiresupposes an intelligent management and preparation of the soil during previous years, and a judicious application of fertilizers to the crop in hand. Both experiment and observation seem to confirm the belief that the applica- FAKMEKS' INSTITUTES. IGl tion of plaster and other fertilizers to corn iu the hill, while of apparent benefit in the early stages of its growth, will, if composted and spread with manure do more good with far less cost : for during the later growth of the plant, when the work of assimilation is at its height, the absorption of its food takes place mainly through the minute rootlets and still smaller root hairs, at a distance of several feet from the stalk, and reaches, if not prevented by an unwise cultivation, every portion of the soil. With sod, or wheat stubble which was sod the year before, with a good coating of manure, which will do most good at least expense if drawn and spread in tlie winter, seems most favorable for a large crop ; but, even with a favorable season, it yet depends upon the method and cost of culture, Avhether the crop is raised at a loss, or how great the profit may be. To secure the best results the work must be well done and done rapidly, to which end the skillful hand, the strong team, the best of tools, and above all, watchful industry and well laid plans are essential. Next in importance to enriching the soil is the reduction of cost ; and upon this last depends, more than all else, the immediate profits of the farmer. By way of illustration, a consideration of the cost of the various items of cultivation under different methods may be profitable. The cost of plowing 40 acres with three large, powerful horses, and plow of proportionate size, 12 days' work, at $3 $36 00 Cost with two small horses, 20 days 50 00 Cost of dragging twice, 12-ft. harrow, 2 days, 3 horses 6 00 Cost of dragging twice with G-ft. harrow and 2 horses, 4 days 10 00 Cost of marking with 16-f t. marker, 2 days • 5 00 Cost of marking with 8-f t. marker. 10 00 Cost of planting by old method, with the hoe, 20 days' work 20 00 By using slabs for covering the Avork may be better done at a cost of.. 11 00 Cost of cultivating, 1 horse, 10 days, at $1 50 15 00 Cost of cultivating, 2 horses, 5 days 12 00 Cultivating 6 times, 1 horse 90 00 Cultivating 6 times, 2 horses 72 00 As a matter of curiosity as well as instruction, the number of miles travel by one method maybe stated in round numbers at 800, by the other at 1,500. The cost of cultivation, in the aggregate, by the one method is 8130, by the other 1180. Leaving out of consideration the probability, amounting almost to certainty, of an increased yield, here is a saving of $50, or $1.25 per acre, due to strong motive power with implements of projDortionate size.. Taking the average yield of this country, this would be a saving of 4 cents a bushel, and upon its entire production of 1,000,000,000 bushels the sum of $40,000,000. Insignificant as this sum may appear in the case of each individual, it may determine whether he is on the road to affluence or iDankruptcy. As further affecting the cost of production, first fix the date of planting, and place it late in the season, so that the ground beyond question will bo warm, the germination rapid, the growth healthy and uninterrui^ted. Defer ploAviug as long as possible, and when once begun work steadily and rapidly ; drag thor- oughly, mark accurately, and plant immediately, and then, if necessary, rest, with mind free from apprehensions of a struggle with frost and replanting, and weeds, a pale and sicklv plant, and a scant harvest to close the melancholy scene. While farmers are urgent in their demands for cheap transportation ; while 21 163 STATE BOARD OF AGEICULTUEE. they are iudignant, and justly so iu these times, at any increase of freights ; while they rise ahnost in rebellion at a monopoly of warehouse privileges which, if they would ship their wheat in bulk, obliges them to pay 1^ cents per bushel for the privilege of running it through a hoj^per and a spout to the car below ; would it not be wise, also, to study with like interest to save a few cents per bushel in the cost of production, by deeper study into the laws of nature, by improved methods of culture, by discussions, and carefully conducted experi- ments in granges and farmers' clubs, and meetings like the present. Improvement should be the motto of the farmer, and we owe this alike to the memory of our fathers, who cleared and fashioned the beautiful farms which are our heritage ; to ourselves, as custodians in the present, of the fair fame and honor and dignity of the noble profession we have espoused ; and to that posterity Avho, when we have shuffled off the mortal coil, are to carry on the great work of development and progression. DISCUSSI02